Konklusioner fra konference om interreligiøs dialog

Parliamentary
report on
religion and belief
Working towards more
peaceful and inclusive societies
Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Offentligt
IPU Alm.del - Bilag 10
Dansk Interparlamentarisk Gruppes bestyrelse 2022-23 (2. samling)
ISBN 978-92-9142-886-1
Cover picture: Religious leaders were invited to the New Zealand Parliament after
the Christchurch mosque attacks in 2019. The interfaith group includes representatives
of the Islamic, Jewish, Buddhist, Sikh, Hindu, Ratana, Catholic, Anglican and Presbyterian
faiths and churches. © VNP/Daniela Maoate-Cox
Design and layout by Philippe Boisson, Graphisme
© Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2023
For personal and non-commercial use, all or parts of this publication may be reproduced on
condition that copyright and source indications are also copied and no modifications are made.
Please inform the Inter-Parliamentary Union on the usage of the publication content.
1
Contents
Foreword by the Secretary General  2
Introduction  3
Executive summary 6
1. 
Religion, belief and the legislative system  9
1.1. 
Religious influence and religious heritage 9
1.2. 
Legislation regulating religious practice 12
1.3. 
Different laws for different communities 13
2. Parliamentary committees 14
3. Representation: Reserved seats 17
4. Consultation 19
4.1. Committee meetings  19
4.2. 
Inviting religious groups to parliament 19
4.3. Public participation 21
5. Parliamentary activities 22
5.1. 
Non-partisan common interest groups 22
5.2. 
Annual debate on freedom of religion or belief  23
5.3. Religious celebrations  24
5.4. Ad hoc symbolic events 24
6. 
Parliamentary attitudes towards religion and belief 25
6.1. 
Prayers before parliamentary sittings 25
6.2. Dress codes 27
6.3. 
Commemoration of religious events and religious heritage by parliament 29
6.4. 
Oaths and affirmations of office 30
7. 
Regional and international parliamentary engagement 31
7.1. 
Inter-parliamentary dialogue and networking 31
7.2 
Extra-parliamentary dialogue and networking 33
Outlook  35
References 36
Methodology and data sources  45
Acknowledgements 46
Participation in the data collection for this report 47
2
Foreword by the
Secretary General
Religion and belief play a significant role in our States and societies. Over 100 States refer to
God in their constitutional or similar instruments, and religion and belief are often present in
different branches of government or are interwoven into a State’s self-understanding. The right
to freedom of religion or belief is enshrined in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Parliamentarians have an important role to play in meaningfully engaging with the values and
worldviews of their constituents, many of which are influenced by religion or belief. Parliaments
must ensure that human rights are upheld, without distinction of any kind. Many religions
or beliefs have positions on areas of parliamentary concern, such as marriage and divorce,
reproductive rights and freedom of expression, to name a few. In our increasingly globalized
world, societies are also becoming more diverse, which has an impact on social cohesion and
the values and needs of citizens.
The IPU is committed to working towards more peaceful and inclusive societies and to including
religion and belief in this conversation. At the 127th IPU Assembly in Quebec City in 2012,
parliaments addressed issues of citizenship, identity and linguistic and cultural diversity in a
globalized world. They recognized the importance of balancing respect for diversity with social
inclusiveness and cohesion as a means of building trust and as a precondition for progress
and prosperity. At the 137th IPU Assembly in St. Petersburg in 2017
, IPU Member Parliaments
recognized that dialogue with faiths, cultures and ethnicities is essential to peace and cultural
pluralism. At the our recent 146th IPU Assembly in Manama, parliaments acknowledged
that people, on the basis of their religion or belief, can become targets of different types of
intolerance, while they can also be important agents in encouraging collaborative networks
promoting dialogue and joint projects in service to the community.
At the IPU, we believe in the central role of parliaments in guaranteeing the rule of law and
justice and also in contributing to more inclusive societies. Our strategy encourages parliaments
to view themselves as part of broader ecosystems with which they must engage for the
promotion of peace, democracy and sustainable development for all.
The present report explores the institutional engagement of parliaments with different aspects
of religion and belief. It reviews and assesses parliamentary mechanisms and activities and also
highlights how parliaments promote inclusion and engage with religion and belief in a way that
reflects different needs, values and parliamentary cultures.
It is a pleasure to introduce this unique report, which invites readers to a meaningful dialogue
about religion and belief in the work of national parliaments
Martin Chungong
Secretary General
Inter-Parliamentary Union
3
Introduction
Introduction
This Parliamentary Report on Religion and Belief is part of a broader engagement of the
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), the world organization of national parliaments, to promote
inclusive and peaceful societies where the rights of all, regardless of religion or belief, are
guaranteed and protected.
Parliaments are the guardians of the rule of law, human rights and justice in societies, through
their key functions of law-making, oversight, budgeting and representation. Religion and belief
constitute an important dimension of the identity, values and decision-making processes of
individuals and communities.
An oft-cited study conducted by Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life in
2012 revealed that 84% of people worldwide are religiously affiliated and that this number is
increasing. In many societies, religion and belief are not merely matters for personal reflection
but are interwoven into the social fabric. Religious organizations have long been important
providers of social welfare, education, humanitarian assistance, social justice, and spiritual and
moral guidance. Some religions or beliefs also desire to shape their societies, as reflected in the
agendas of certain politicians, political parties and governance structures. Religious stakeholders
can wield an influence comparable to political actors.
The relevance of religion and belief for parliamentary work was recognized at the 137th IPU
Assembly in St. Petersburg in 2017
, which valued the contribution of interfaith dialogue for
promoting cultural pluralism and recognized that, as representatives of the people, the world’s
parliaments were committed to strengthening normative processes and legal frameworks aimed
at enhancing intercultural and interfaith dialogue. At the 146th IPU Assembly in Manama in 2023,
parliaments acknowledged the importance of dialogue, education and awareness-raising as tools
for countering different forms of intolerance and fostering inclusion and peaceful coexistence.
Symbols of Christianity,
Buddhism, Islam and
Judaism: Bible, crucifix,
Kippah, Allah monogram
and mala © Fred de Noyelle/
Godong/Leemage via AFP
4
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Objectives
The report follows a number of aims. It is intended firstly as
a tool to facilitate mutual learning. It provides insights into
how different parliaments protect and represent religions and
beliefs within society through legislation and activities. It also
outlines parliamentary engagement with religions and beliefs
to promote inclusion, peaceful coexistence and dialogue. The
report endeavours to highlight the breadth of parliamentary
cultures worldwide and to create awareness of the different
facets of religion and belief in many societies and parliaments.
The report is also an invitation to parliaments to scrutinize their
own legislation and to bring it in line with international human
rights frameworks, as well as to review their own practices
to ensure that they are informed by up-to-date demographic
data and fulfil their intended mandate. Being informed by
different practices of other parliaments could be a valuable
tool in this process.
Lastly, the report is an invitation to inter-parliamentary and
interfaith dialogue, particularly for promoting and protecting
the rule of law and peace and inclusion. Sharing different
practices and experiences to better guarantee human rights
and fundamental freedoms, or to promote peace, inclusion and
the rule of law, is a valuable area of focus for dialogue.
The two parts of the Parliamentary
Report on Religion and Belief
The report is divided into two parts. Part 1 showcases
examples of ways that religion and belief are institutionally
present in the life and work of parliaments, such as through:
• Highlighting the relationship of religion or belief to the
identity of the State, as outlined in the constitution
or basic law, which can be reflected in areas such as
legislation, budgetary allocation, selection criteria for
certain offices or the allocation of reserved seats.
• Parliamentary committees which consider issues relating
to religion and belief, including draft legislation, budgetary
allocation and oversight of government.
• Consultation mechanisms to advise parliaments on the
conduct of their daily work.
• Parliamentary traditions reflecting the religious identity,
values or heritage of broader society, such as through
prayers, faith-based oaths of office and dress codes.
• Voluntary cross-party common interest groups which
allow parliamentarians to engage with political issues
that intersect with religious issues.
1 A list of IPU Member Parliaments can be found at: https://www.ipu.org/about-ipu/members.
2 This report also uses the terms given by the US Department of State (US DoS) to describe religious traditions.
• Parliamentary participation in or acknowledgement of
faith-based events to promote diversity and inclusion,
such as religious celebrations, prayer breakfasts,
fellowship networks, days/weeks/months dedicated
to different languages, cultures and faiths, and
commemorations in relation to crimes targeting religious
or belief communities.
• Dialogue with representatives of religions or beliefs
around common issues or between parliamentary and
non-parliamentary actors around issues with a religious
or belief dimension.
Part 2 will consider the individual experiences of
parliamentarians engaging with religion and belief in their work
with constituents and within parliament.
Sources
The report draws on two key sources: firstly, a survey which
was shared with IPU Member Parliaments and Permanent
Observer organizations in March 2022 which elicited
responses from 53 parliaments and 1 permanent observer
organization.1
Secondly, key informant interviews which were
conducted with 55 parliamentarians, parliamentary staff and
experts throughout 2022. This report is intended to be a living
document that will continue to grow as more parliaments
share experiences.
The report also draws on input from the General Debate of
the 137th IPU Assembly in St. Petersburg, the workshop on
Good parliamentary practices to promote interfaith dialogue
at the 143rd IPU Assembly in Madrid in 2021, the Global
Parliamentary Report 2022, and the IPU’s open-data platform
(Parline), as well as other open-access literature.
In order to remain consistent in its use of sources, the
report uses English language translations of national
constitutions and basic laws as found on the Constitute
website (constituteproject.org), a platform developed by the
Comparative Constitutions Project at the University of Texas in
Austin and the University of Chicago, which contains in-force
constitutions and basic laws from 193 States. The report uses
demographic data found in the annual International Religious
Freedom Reports of the US Department of State (US DoS).
This report makes use of the 2021 US DoS reports, which
were released in June 2022.2
The US DoS reports draw on
national census data in their demographic estimates where
available and are a helpful alternative to solely relying on
national sources, which would reduce the reliability of the
information across the board.
5
Introduction
Limitations of this report
Some areas fall outside the scope of the present report.
Firstly, the report acknowledges that the existence of
legislation or activities ostensibly protecting freedom of religion
or belief, guaranteeing minority rights and representation, and
promoting cultures of peace and inclusion, is not a statement
about whether these provisions are being implemented freely
or fully. Further, parliamentary practices, such as allocated
seats for minorities and quotas, are not always used to uphold
the rights of these groups, nor do they always reflect the
demographic reality of society.
Secondly, the report focuses mainly on the rights and visibility
of religious communities and their members and less on
those of people who have no religious affiliation. It is often
challenging to define and collect reliable data on those
professing no religious affiliation, whose rights are curtailed in
a number of societies. At the same time, non-affiliation is on
the rise in a number of States: census data from Australia and
the United Kingdom published in 2022 revealed for the first
time that the number of people professing a religious affiliation
dropped below 50% of the population, while the number of
those professing no religious affiliation continues to rise.
Thirdly, religion and belief is also an intersectional issue,
closely related to other issues such as gender, youth,
citizenship, human rights and minority rights. The IPU supports
an inclusive approach, encouraging parliaments to consider
issues of religion and belief within the broader context of
upholding the rights and freedoms of all groups.
Issues of religion and belief often include an associated value
system. At times, values of religion and belief can stand in
tension with other rights. Part 2 of this report will consider
some of these issues in more detail.
Despite these limitations, the report hopes to be a valuable
resource for the global parliamentary community and serve
as a stepping stone for dialogue and the exploration of
related issues.
6
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Executive summary
The Parliamentary Report on Religion and Belief examines how parliaments and parliamentarians
engage with issues of religion and belief in their work to build peaceful and inclusive societies.
It recognizes that religion and belief constitute an important dimension of the identity,
values and decision-making processes of individuals and communities. They can influence
how people participate in society, how they exercise their civic and political rights, and how
they view their allegiance to the State. Religion and belief are also reflected in political and
other governance structures.
Part 1 of the report focuses on different ways in which religion and belief are institutionally
integrated into parliamentary activities. Part 2 will engage with the experiences of parliamentarians
in approaching issues in which parliamentary work and religion and belief intersect.
The IPU promotes political dialogue for the promotion of peace and cooperation among peoples
and for the solid establishment of representative institutions. As the global organization
of national parliaments, its work is guided by the Charter of the United Nations and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It seeks to better understand the broader systems
in which parliaments are embedded. The information and findings in this report therefore
aim to contribute to the broader learning of the parliamentary community about the diversity
of parliamentary cultures and the unique context of each society, determined by its history,
parliamentary system and own blend of religions, beliefs and traditions. It also seeks to identify
where religion and belief can promote or hinder the work of parliaments in upholding the rule of
law, citizenship, human rights and justice in our societies.
His All Holiness Ecumenical
Patriarch Bartholomew I
of Constantinople, on
his first visit to Lithuania,
delivers a speech at a
conference in the Seimas
of the Republic of Lithuania.
From left to right: Ingrida
Šimonyte, Prime Minister
of the Republic of Lithuania;
Viktorija Cmilyte-Nielsen,
Speaker of the Seimas of
the Republic of Lithuania;
His All Holiness Ecumenical
Patriarch Bartholomew I
of Constantinople; and the
Archbishop Metropolitan of
Vilnius Gintaras Grušas.
22 March 2023.
© Džoja Gunda Barysaite,
Office of the Seimas
.
.
.
7
Executive summary
Religion, belief and the legislative system
An important function of parliament is to draft legislation. This
has to be consistent with the State’s constitution or basic
law. In these texts, we variously find articles that designate
an official religion or belief, that have provisions for religious
rulings in certain areas of law, whose values or principles are
religiously influenced, as well as different understandings of
secularism and how it relates to religion or belief. A number
of constitutions or basic laws contain a reference to religion or
belief in the preamble, which creates a link to heritage, origins
and recent history.
The majority of constitutions or basic laws also contain
statements on how the State approaches religious freedom.
Guided by these statements, parliaments are tasked with
ironing out the details of how religions or beliefs present
within the State are integrated into or protected by the
legislative framework of the State, which may be secular and/
or influenced by religion or belief.
States vary with regard to how the legislative systems engage
with religion and belief. Some States have one set of laws
which apply to all members of society, regardless of religion or
belief. Others allow for different religions or beliefs to exercise
their own laws in certain areas. Exceptions are often made in
areas of personal or family law, including marriage, divorce,
adoption, inheritance and succession. Still others are guided
by the laws of one tradition, within the boundaries of which
different religions or beliefs can practise.
Parliamentary committees
Many parliaments have committees in one or both chambers
dealing with issues relating to religion and belief. The mandate
of these committees is not standardized across parliaments.
They can be variously responsible for oversight, legislation
and/or consultation on issues relating to the expression
of religion and belief, human rights, the rights of religious
minorities, compliance with international laws, drafting or
reviewing legislation and its implementation, and scrutinizing
the behaviour of government. Some parliaments have entire
committees dedicated to religion and belief. Others distribute
issues impacting religion and belief to committees with
overlapping mandates. Work relating to religion and belief can
be found in committees dealing with issues such as youth,
sports and culture, human rights, justice and governance.
Representing diversity of religion and belief
Parliaments have different tools for promoting the political
representation of persons from different religions and beliefs.
Some parliaments have reserved seats for certain groups
– sometimes including religious or ethno-religious groups –
in one or both chambers. The number of reserved seats is
often based on early census data. Other parliaments have
no regulation here, understanding that the composition of
parliament, through directly elected members, will organically
reflect the changing face of society.
Consultation mechanisms
A number of parliaments have mechanisms in place that
facilitate consultation with stakeholders with expertise and
from a spectrum of interest groups in society, including
representatives of religions and beliefs. Key ways of
consulting with external voices are through inviting experts
to committee meetings, inviting representatives of religions
or beliefs to parliament, holding public hearings, and inviting
written submissions.
When the public is invited to participate in parliamentary
processes, religious actors and representatives of beliefs and
faith-based organizations can participate in their capacity as
members of the public as well as community leaders who
influence public opinion.
Parliamentary activities
Parliaments have additional, non-institutional activities
centred around religion or belief. Some parliaments have
cross-party groups around faith-based issues. These are not
parliamentary bodies but rather dialogue mechanisms created
by parliamentarians which bring together members across
party lines to engage in issues of common interest or concern.
Cross-party cooperation can also extend to prayer groups,
fellowships or prayer breakfasts, which can be confessional,
ecumenical or interfaith in outlook.
Some parliaments participate in religious celebrations by sharing
messages of peace and goodwill or by individual members of
parliament attending services during religious holidays. Other
parliaments respond ad hoc to events that impact society, such
as by showing solidarity after acts of violence or discrimination
towards a religious or belief community.
8
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Parliamentary attitudes towards religion and belief
Parliaments stand at the nexus between the tradition that
the country is steeped in and upon which its institutions
were established, and the values of its contemporary citizens.
This is often visible in how religion or belief is expressed
in parliament.
A number of parliaments begin each session of either one or
both chambers with a prayer. For many of these, the prayer
has been adapted over the years, having its text altered, being
read in different languages or accompanied by a period of
silent reflection for those who do not wish to participate. In
some instances, there are specific religious clergy assigned to
parliament to cater for the spiritual needs of members and to
exercise religious functions.
Parliamentary dress codes can evoke debates around religious
freedom where provisions exist on certain items of clothing or
the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols.
During major religious celebrations or religiously significant
events, parliament may choose to adapt its working mode to
allow members to participate in observances such as breaking
fast or celebrating a religious holiday that does not have public
holiday status in the country.
Oaths of office are part of the swearing-in of parliamentarians,
required before they are permitted to assume parliamentary
duties. A number of oaths are sworn in the name of God.
Parliaments have several ways of catering for members of
parliament who belong to different religions or who profess
no belief. Some parliaments offer the possibility of swearing
an affirmation, from which religious references are omitted,
instead of an oath. Others offer different religious texts which
can be sworn upon.
Regional and international parliamentary engagement
There are a number of inter-parliamentary organizations which
work to promote common interests and support parliamentary
work. These organizations appeal to shared values of different
parliaments, for example by drawing on a common religious
heritage and cooperating to preserve it, or bringing parliaments
of different religious or belief traditions together on the basis
of promoting peace.
Parliaments and parliamentary organizations also engage in
dialogue with extra-parliamentary actors. There are instances
of parliamentary cooperation with religious actors in the spirit
of partnership for common ends, such as on climate change or
nuclear non-proliferation.
What next?
It is hoped that this report can open an avenue for
experience-based inter- and intra-parliamentary dialogue
around the engagement of parliaments with religion and
belief to promote more peaceful, just and inclusive societies.
The report is a living document to be enriched as new
information is received. As such, we invite parliaments to share
further examples of how they engage with religion and belief
by contacting us at: postbox@ipu.org.
9
1. 
Religion, belief and the
legislative system3
3 An informative document in this regard is the 2018 Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief concerning the relationships between the State and religion and their impact on
freedom of religion or belief. See: Shaheed, 2020.
4 Pew Research Center, 2017.
5 Sharia is not a static code and is mentioned here to indicate its presence in a number of legal texts. An exploration of its process and application is beyond the scope of this report.
6 Pakistan 1973 (reinst. 2002, rev. 2018) Constitution.
7 Palestine 2003 (rev. 2005) Basic Law.
8 Egypt 2014 (rev. 2019) Constitution.
9 Ibid.
1.1. 
Religious influence and
religious heritage3
The variety of religions and beliefs worldwide, combined
with the uniqueness of parliamentary structures, means that
speaking about parliamentary engagement with religion and
belief is highly subjective. Constitutions or basic laws often
make statements about religion or belief – its exercise or its
role within the State – and subsequent legislation must be
consistent with these. As parliaments in most cases also
decide on amendments to the constitution or basic law, the
role of religion in the constitution basic law is therefore also
an expression of how parliament understands the State.
According to a 2017 study from the Pew Research Center,
of 199 countries analysed, 43 have an official state religion
and a further 40 have a preferred religion, while 106 have
no official/preferred religion and 10 are actively hostile to
religious institutions.4
In order to elicit further information about the attitude of the
State towards religion and belief and whether it is reflected
in its legislature, the IPU asked parliaments whether their
legislative system was influenced by the laws or values of
religions or beliefs.
In a number of parliaments of Muslim-majority States there
exists a connection between Islam being the state religion
and a religious legal apparatus, which is often a source of
legislation. Islamic traditions have religious laws, called the
Sharia, two principal sources of which are the Qur’an and the
sayings and practices of the prophet Mohammed, the Sunna.
This Sharia is often mentioned in the constitution or basic law:5
• Article 227 of the Constitution of Pakistan states, “All
existing laws shall be brought in conformity with the
Injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and
Sunnah, in this part referred to as the Injunctions of
Islam, and no law shall be enacted which is repugnant to
such Injunctions.
” A qualification is subsequently added:
“In the application of this clause to the personal law of
any Muslim sect, the expression ’Quran and Sunnah’
shall mean the Quran and Sunnah as interpreted by
the sect.
”6
• In Palestine, Article 4.1 of the Basic Law states: “Islam is
the official religion in Palestine. Respect for the sanctity
of all other divine religions shall be maintained” and
Article 4.2 states: “The principles of Islamic Shari’a shall
be a principal source of legislation.
”7
In Egypt, there is the unique case of the existence of Al-Azhar,
the traditional seat of learning for Sunni Islam. The Egyptian
Constitution establishes in Article 1 that the system of the
State is based “[…] on citizenship and the rule of law”
, and in
Article 2 clarifies that “Islam is the religion of the State […].
The principles of Islamic Sharia are the principle source of
legislation”
. Article 3 allows for the principles of the laws of
Egyptian Christians and Jews to serve as the main source of
laws governing their personal status and religious affairs.8
In
Article 7
, Al-Azhar is mentioned as:
“an independent scientific Islamic institution, with
exclusive competence over its own affairs. It is the
main authority for religious sciences, and Islamic affairs.
It is responsible for preaching Islam and disseminating
the religious sciences and the Arabic language in Egypt
and the world.
[…]
Al-Azhar’s Grand Sheikh is independent and cannot be
dismissed.
”9
Al-Azhar claims it is the most authoritative source on religious
matters, with reference to the constitution. There is also
another body advising on interpretation of Islamic laws: Dar
al-Ifta, a religious body formally under the Ministry of Justice,
but whose head, or Grand Mufti, is nominated by Al-Azhar via
secret ballot. Dar al-Ifta issues religious rulings and fatwas,
and provides advice to the government, parliament and
broader society on religious matters. The Ministry of Religious
Endowments is another source of authority regarding religious
matters. It is a governmental body not affiliated with Al-Azhar.
1. 
Religion, belief and the legislative system
10
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Case study: 
Indonesia’s “unity in diversity”
10 US DoS, 2022j.
11 Indonesia 1945 (reinst. 1959, rev. 2002) Constitution.
12 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013.
13 Indonesia 1945 (reinst. 1959, rev. 2002) Constitution.
Indonesia is the largest Muslim-majority democracy in the world,
with 87% of its 275 million-strong population identifying as Muslim.
The State officially recognizes six religions confessions: Islam,
Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Confucianism.10
Since 2017, other belief systems including traditional religious
groups and minorities have also been recognized on identity cards.
There is no official data on people professing no belief. Indonesia
is also an ethnically diverse country, with over 1,000 ethnic groups
speaking more than 700 languages spread across the 17,000 islands
of the Indonesian archipelago.
The State’s attitude to religion is not determined by one particular
tradition. Rather, Article 29 of the Constitution puts forward
monotheism as the guiding religious principle (“The State shall
be based upon the belief in the One and Only God”), while in the
next sentence guaranteeing freedom of religion or belief (Article
29.2, also 28E and 28I).11
This corresponds with the five principles
underlying the Indonesian state philosophy, known as Pancasila.12
The first of these principles is the acknowledgement of monotheism,
making the status of religious non-affiliation unclear.
Indonesia’s national motto bhinneka tunggal ika – which
translates as “unity in diversity” – reflects this hyper-diversity and
is enshrined in Article 36A of the Constitution.13
It is written on the
national coat of arms, alongside the Pancasila eagle.
Various religious practices exist in the country, with some provinces,
such as Aceh, enforcing Sharia law.
Parliamentarian Putu Supadma Rudana from Bali, a Hindu-majority
Indonesian province, says, “The Indonesian experience reconfirms
that religion and democracy can coexist and make a constructive
contribution to a more prosperous and peaceful world.” Fellow
parliamentarian Fadli Zon, of the Muslim-majority West Java
province, extends this thought to the work of parliament, saying,
“if parliaments can participate in this interfaith dialogue, in the
long run we will have more tolerance and understanding about the
differences among religious beliefs and that is the source of peace.
After all, we are the same.”
Craftsmen make a statue of Garuda Pancasila in the Greater Bali area, Kalimalang, East Jakarta. © Dasril Roszandi / NurPhoto /
NurPhoto via AFP
11
In Buddhist-majority States in Asia, some constitutions make
reference to or show a preference for Buddhist values and
practices. The Constitution of Sri Lanka states that the Republic
of Sri Lanka shall “give to Buddhism the foremost place and
accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and
foster the Buddha Sasana…” (teachings or practices). The
Constitution also guarantees freedom of religion or belief.
Although Sri Lanka is a Buddhist-majority State (70.2%), it
also has significant Hindu, Muslim and Christian populations
estimated at 12.6%, 9.7% and 7
.4%, respectively.14
In Thailand, the Constitution obliges the State to “support and
protect” Buddhism and other religions. Section 67 states in
this regard:
“In supporting and protecting Buddhism, which is
the religion observed by the majority of Thai people
for a long period of time, the State should promote
and support education and dissemination of dharmic
principles of Theravada Buddhism for the development
of mind and wisdom development, and shall have
measures and mechanisms to prevent Buddhism from
being undermined in any form. The State should also
encourage Buddhists to participate in implementing
such measures or mechanisms.
”
Data from the 2010 census indicates that 93% of the
population is Theravada Buddhist and 5% is Muslim. There
are also small populations of animists, Christians, Confucians,
Hindus, Jews, Sikhs and Taoists.15
Cambodia is a predominantly Buddhist State (93% of the
population) which recognizes Buddhism as the religion of the
State.16
The State’s motto is “nation, religion, king”
. When the
King dies, Buddhist religious representatives are included in
the Royal Council of the Throne, which selects his successor.
The Constitution fosters Buddhist education, encouraging the
State to promote Pali schools and Buddhist institutes.17
Other systems are implicitly influenced by religion or belief.
For instance, the 1987 Political Constitution of the Republic of
Nicaragua, under Title I. Fundamental Principles, Article No. 5,
states that “Christian values” are amongst the principles of
the nation. The third paragraph states: “Christian values ensure
brotherly love, the reconciliation between the members of the
Nicaraguan family, the respect for individual diversity without
any discrimination, the respect for and equal rights of persons
with disabilities, and the preference for the poor.
”18
This
statement does not attach itself to a specific religious law or
statement, but rather intends to summarize its essence.
14 US DoS, 2022v.
15 US DoS, 2022w.
16 US DoS, 2022d.; Cambodia 1993 (rev. 2008) Constitution, Article 43.
17 Cambodia 1993 (rev. 2008) Constitution.
18 Nicaragua 1987 (rev. 2014) Constitution.
19 Bhutan 2008 Constitution.
20 Russian Federation 1993 (rev. 2020) Constitution. The new amendments are available in the original Russian but have not yet been updated on the Constitute website. The English translation of the
quotation is provided by the Russian Parliament. The US DoS 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Russia also refers to this.
21 Ibid.
22 Poland 1997 (rev. 2009) Constitution.
23 Hungary 2011 (rev. 2016) Constitution.
24 Algeria 2020 Constitution.
Religious heritage
A number of constitutions make reference to the religious
heritage of the State. In the Constitution of Bhutan, Article
No. 3.1 states: “Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of Bhutan,
which promotes the principles and values of peace, non-violence,
compassion and tolerance.
”19
An amendment to the Constitution of the Russian Federation
from March 2020 also has recourse to religious heritage.
Article 67-1.2 states: “The Russian Federation, united by a
thousand-year history, preserving the memory of ancestors
who conveyed the ideals and faith in God to us, as well as
continuity in the development of the Russian State, recognizes
the historically formed state unity.
”20
This amendment has
been commented on by the Constitutional Court as still being
consistent with the secular nature of the Russian State:
“The reference in the text of the Constitution of the
Russian Federation to faith in God conveyed to the
people of Russia by their ancestors does not mean
a rejection of the secular nature of the Russian
State, since the texting is not associated with any
confessional affiliation ... and it is intended only
to emphasize the need to give due regard, when
implementing the state policy, to the historically
significant social and cultural role that the religious
component played in the formation and development of
the Russian statehood.
”21
A feature of the Russian State is that it also has seven
Muslim-majority republics and one Buddhist-majority region.
Kalmykia is the only Buddhist-majority region in Europe.
A number of other constitutions acknowledge the State’s
religious heritage in their preamble.
• For instance, the preamble of the Constitution of Poland
states: “Beholden to our ancestors […] for our culture
rooted in the Christian heritage of the Nation and in
universal human values.
”22
• The preamble of the Constitution of Hungary states: “We
are proud that our king Saint Stephen built the Hungarian
State on solid ground and made our country a part of
Christian Europe one thousand years ago.
[…]
We recognise the role of Christianity in preserving
nationhood. We value the various religious traditions of
our country.
”23
• The preamble to the Constitution of Algeria includes
Islam as one of the “fundamental constituents of
[Algeria’s] identity.
”24
1. 
Religion, belief and the legislative system
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Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
• The preamble to the Constitution of Argentina invokes
the “protection of God, source of all reason and justice.
”25
• The preamble to the Constitution of Timor-Leste gives
special mention to the Catholic Church, although the
Constitution itself clearly states that religion and the
State are separate. The preamble reads: “In its cultural
and humane perspective, the Catholic Church in East
Timor has always been able to take on the suffering of all
the People with dignity, placing itself on their side in the
defence of their most elementary rights.
”26
• The reason for this mention was to recognize the
Catholic Church’s support in Timor-Leste’s path to
independence, both under the Portuguese colonial
mandate and subsequently during the annexation by
Indonesia, until independence in 2002.27
In the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the issue of
ethno-religious identity is also mentioned in the preamble. Part
of the preamble refers to international declarations which have
inspired the Constitution, including: “the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, the International Covenants on Civil and Political
Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the
Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or
Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, as well as other human
rights instruments.
”The preamble also mentions “Bosniacs,
Croats, and Serbs, as constituent peoples (along with Others).
”28
Generally speaking, the Croats predominantly identify as Roman
Catholic, the Bosniacs as Muslim and the Serbs as Serbian
Orthodox.The Presidency is occupied by a three-member body,
consisting of a Bosniac, Serb and Croat representative. Article IV
of the Constitution guarantees representation of all three
ethno-religious communities in the upper chamber (the House
of Peoples) of the Parliamentary Assembly.
1.2. Legislation regulating
religious practice
In addition to giving insight into the position of the State
vis-à-vis religion or belief, the constitution or basic law also
contains statements on how the State approaches religious
freedom. According to data from the Constitute website, an
open-access resource which contains English translations of
current constitutions and basic laws of 193 States, 184 (or
95% of) States contain provisions on freedom of religion.29
The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life states that 76% of
the 198 States and territories that participated in its 2009 study
on Global restrictions on religion established freedom of
religion or belief in their constitutions or basic laws and 20%
protect some religious practices.30
This statistic indicates that
almost all constitutions/basic laws wholly or partly guarantee
religious freedom.
25 Argentina 1853 (reinst. 1983, rev. 1994) Constitution.
26 Timor-Leste 2002 Constitution.
27 US DoS, 2022x.
28 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995 (rev. 2009) Constitution.
29 Constitute, 2022.
30 Pew Research Center, 2009.
31 Belgium, Civil Code, Article 166.
32 Afghanistan 2004 Constitution.
33 Udin, 2020.
34 China (People’s Republic of) 1982 (rev. 2018) Constitution.
35 Majumdar, 2021.
36 Ibid.
A central function of parliament is drafting and/or reviewing
legislation. Guided by the constitution or basic law, parliaments
are tasked with ironing out the details of how religions or belief
systems present within the State – along with the laws, rituals
and structures specific to each tradition – are integrated into or
protected by the legislative framework of the State, which can
be secular and/or influenced by religions, beliefs and values.This
includes where different aspects of freedom of religion or belief
require clarifying legislation or where any issue at the national level
threatens the rights of citizens on the basis of religion or belief.
Parliaments worldwide have varying approaches to legislation
on issues related to religion and belief. Some examples of
this include:
• Legislation allowing certain areas of law, such as personal
or family law governing marriage, divorce, adoption and/
or succession, to be regulated by religious communities.
This point is expanded on below.
• Legislation requiring all citizens, regardless of their world
view, to follow the same set of laws. In Belgium, for
instance, all marriages must be conducted by a registrar
and a religious ceremony is optional.31
• Legislation that subsumes religious rights, usually of
minorities, under those of the official or majority religion.
The Constitution of Afghanistan of 2004 states that
Islam is the religion of the State (Articles 1 and 2), laws
shall not contravene the tenets of Islam (Article 3) and
“followers of other faiths shall be free within the bounds
of law in the exercise and performance of their religious
rituals” (Article 2).32
• Legislation which restricts certain practices. In Slovenia,
the slaughter of animals without pre-stunning has been
banned since 2012 on the grounds of animal welfare. As
this violates the conditions needed to guarantee Jewish
ritual slaughter, Jewish communities observing Kashrut –
the set of laws regulating what Jews are allowed to eat
– have to import their meat from other countries.33
• Legislation in which freedom of religion or belief is
restricted by state-approved religions and practices. In
China, the Constitution provides for freedom of religious
belief (Article 36). It protects the “normal religious
activities” of officially recognized religions which do not
“disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or
interfere with the educational system of the state.”34
A
number of countries apply limitations to religious freedom.35
• Legislation banning religious communities. According to
Pew Research Center data from 2019, 41 countries banned
certain religious groups, among them Jehovah’s Witnesses,
Baha’is and the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.36
13
Each parliament is tasked with scrutinizing its own legislation
and frameworks regarding religion and belief, as well as
the work of government regarding religious freedom and
the treatment of different communities, and with using its
mechanisms to bring legislation in line with the international
human rights frameworks.
1.3. 
Different laws for
different communities
Parliaments were asked whether their legislative system
allowed for different religions or beliefs to exercise their own
laws in certain areas. Positive responses were received from
secular and non-secular States. Exceptions were often made
in areas of personal law, including marriage, divorce, adoption,
inheritance and succession. In many States, additional efforts
are required to ensure the effective implementation of
existing legislation.
The Republic of Bangladesh is a multi-religious society with
a Muslim-majority population and a significant Hindu minority,
as well as smaller Buddhist and Christian communities.
According to census data from 2013, a total of 89% of
the population identifies as Muslim (Sunni) and 10% as Hindu.
The next biggest communities are Roman Catholic and
Theravada-Hinayana Buddhist.37
Bangladesh has a secular
constitution38
which, while designating a state religion
(Islam), guarantees freedom of religion or belief and includes
provisions for religious communities to practise their own
religion. Its Constitution states in Article 2A: “The state religion
of the Republic is Islam, but the State shall ensure equal
status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist,
Christian and other religions.
”39
Article 12 of the Constitution
says that it follows the principles of secularism vis-à-vis religion
by “the elimination of: (a) communalism in all its forms; (b)
the granting by the State of political status in favour of any
religion; (c) the abuse of religion for political purposes; (d) any
discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a
particular religion.
”40
The legislative system of Bangladesh does
not interfere in the exercise of the laws of different religions
– within the bounds of the law, morality and public order – but
it does codify them. The Succession Act of 1925 covers issues
relating to inheritance for different religious groups, as does
the Hindu Law of Inheritance (Amendment) Act.
37 US DoS, 2022a. The report states that there are small groups of Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, Baha’is, agnostics, atheists and animists.
38 Bangladesh 1972 (reinst. 1986, rev. 2014) Constitution, preamble, Article 8 and Article 12.
39 Bangladesh 1972 (reinst. 1986, rev. 2014) Constitution.
40 Ibid.
41 US DoS, 2022i.
42 Kramer, 2021.
43 India 1949 (rev. 2016) Constitution.
44 The Coptic Orthodox Church was also officially recognized as a Christian group in 1995, making it the 18th religious community recognized in Lebanon.
45 US DoS, 2022o.
There are acts covering marriage and divorce for different
religions, for instance the Parsi Marriage and Divorce
Act, Christian Marriage Act, Divorce Act, Hindu Marriage
Registration Act, Hindu Married Women’s Right to Separate
Residence and Maintenance Act, Muslim Family Laws
Ordinance and Muslim Marriages and Divorces (Registration)
Act. The Special Marriage Act exists for those who do not
belong to one of the codified religious traditions or for
interfaith marriages.
The Indian Constitution and legislative system exhibits
similarities. India is a Hindu-majority country – about 79.8%
according to 2011 census data – with many religious minorities,
including Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, Baha’i
and Jewish. The largest minority is Islam, constituting about
14% of the population.41
Due to the sheer size of India,
minorities can still constitute significant communities. For
instance, there are close to 200 million Muslims in India. There
are also regions where minority communities – Sikh, Christian
and Muslim – constitute the majority of the population.42
The Indian legislative system reflects the right to freedom
of religion or belief, as granted by the Indian Constitution in
Article 25.1.43
It allows people of different religious groups to
follow their respective religious values, beliefs and traditions
in matters of marriage, divorce, adoption and inheritance.
Hindu Code Bills regulate Hindu personal law and also govern
the personal law of the Jain, Sikh and Buddhist communities.
Christian, Muslim, Jewish and Parsi communities have their
own regulations for personal law.
Lebanon has always been a country of high religious diversity,
especially within Christian and Muslim communities. Its last
census took place in 1932, the results of which led to the
recognition of initially 17 religious communities: 5 Muslim
groups (including the Druze), Judaism and 11 Christian
groups.44
Resolution No. 60 L.R. of 1936 on the Adoption of
the system of religious sects allowed for personal status laws
for recognized sects in Lebanon to be developed in accordance
with the provisions of different religious systems. Lebanon
has 15 personal-status laws and courts. In parliament, laws
and regulations imposed by the personal status of the sects
are taken into consideration during the discussion, elaboration
or adoption of new laws. Data from the Statistics Lebanon
organization estimates that today 65% of the population is
Muslim (with 32% Sunni, 31.3% Shia and 1.6% Alawite and
Ismaili). It approximates the Christian population to be at 32%,
with Maronite Catholics comprising 52.5% of the Christian
population and Greek Orthodox about 25%.45
1. 
Religion, belief and the legislative system
14
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
2. Parliamentary committees
46 Argentina Chamber of Deputies, 2022; Argentina Senate, 2022.
47 Bangladesh Parliament, 2007.
48 Parliament of Montenegro, 2017.
Many parliaments have committees dealing with issues
relating to religion and belief, which exist under different
names. The mandate of these committees is not standardized
across parliaments. They can be variously responsible for
oversight, legislation and/or consultation on issues relating to
the expression of religion and belief, human rights, the rights
of religious minorities, compliance with international laws,
drafting or reviewing legislation and its implementation, and
scrutinizing the behaviour of government.
A few examples shared by member parliaments are included
in the following.
Both chambers of the Parliament of Argentina have
committees dealing with religious affairs: the Unicameral
Committee for Foreign Affairs and Worship within the Senate,
and the Commission on Foreign Relations and Worship within
the Chamber of Deputies. Their mandates include ruling
on matters related to the exercise of worship by churches
established in the Republic, admission of new religious
orders, and other matters relating to worship.46
The Parliament of Bangladesh has a Standing Committee on
Parliamentary Religious Affairs. The function of a parliamentary
standing committee, as outlined in Rule of Procedure 248 of
the Bangladesh Parliament, is to “examine any Bill or other
matter referred to it by Parliament, to review the works
relating to a Ministry which falls within its jurisdiction, to
inquire into any activity or irregularity and serious complaint
in respect of the Ministry and to examine, if it deems fit, any
such other matter as may fall within its jurisdiction and to
make recommendations.
”47
The Parliament of Denmark has an Ecclesiastical Affairs
Committee which addresses any issue related to church
policies including the Danish Church, other denominations
and burial services. The committee’s mandate is the handling
of bills and motions within its remit and parliamentary
scrutiny of how the government addresses ecclesiastical
policy and observes laws and mandates relating to
ecclesiastical affairs. Scrutiny is exercised through the
standing committee members tabling questions to the
Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs.
The Parliament of Ghana has a Committee on Youth, Sports
and Culture. The committee’s mandate is to investigate and
report to parliament on issues concerning youth, sports and
culture, generally including matters relating to religion and
interfaith harmony. The committee is also responsible for
parliamentary oversight of the ministries, departments and
agencies handling religious issues.
The Parliament of Hungary has a Parliamentary Committee
on Justice. One of its responsibilities is to address questions
concerning religious affairs. It handles constitutional and legal
affairs along with human rights and religious questions, civil
affairs and legislation relating to public administration and
local governments.
The Parliament of India has a Parliamentary Standing
Committee on Social Justice and Empowerment which
directly oversees the functioning of the Ministry of Minority
Affairs of the Government of India. Furthermore, the National
Commission for Minorities in India, which was established
through the National Commission for Minorities Act of
1992, deals with six religious communities (Muslims, Sikhs,
Christians, Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Jains). It
monitors their progress and the effective implementation of
safeguards for the protection of the interests of minorities.
The Parliament of Montenegro has a Standing Committee
on Human Rights and Freedoms. Its mandate is outlined
in Article 44 of the parliament’s Rules of Procedure and
includes scrutinizing legislative proposals, regulations and
issues relating to individual freedoms and rights, with a
special focus on minority rights and implementing ratified
international agreements relating to the realization of these
rights. It further considers initiatives with the goal of helping
implement citizens’ rights and monitors different initiatives
aimed at promoting equality. The committee monitors and
evaluates the compliance and implementation of Montenegro’s
laws with European legislation. The committee has discussed
the Draft Law on Freedom of Religion or Belief and the Legal
Position of Religious Communities, as well as the Draft Law on
Amendments to these.48
The Parliament of Nicaragua has a Commission for Peace,
Defence, Government and Human Rights. Within the mandate
of this commission lies the protection of human rights,
especially of vulnerable individuals. There is also a Commission
for the Affairs of Native Peoples, Afro-descendants and
Autonomous Regimes. The mandate of this commission
includes protecting the livelihoods, interests, customs and
traditions of the native populations and Afro-descendants.
The Parliament of Pakistan has a Standing Committee on
Religious Affairs and Inter-Faith Harmony whose function is
to oversee matters relating to religion and belief and to make
recommendations to the government.
The upper chamber (Federation Council) of the Parliament
of Russia has a Committee on Constitutional Legislation
and State Building which is responsible for religious
organizations. It also has a permanent advisory body,
the Council on Interethnic Relations and Interaction
with Religious Associations. Along with government
representatives, its members include religious leaders,
subject matter experts and civil society organizations.
15
2. Parliamentary committees
The Parliament of Rwanda has a Standing Committee on
Political Affairs and Governance. One of its responsibilities
is to monitor the organization and functioning of faith-based
organizations through the Rwanda Governance Board.
The Parliament of Switzerland has Political Institutions
Committees within the two chambers. The committees’
main task is to examine the bills assigned to them before
the councils (plenaries) debate them. The committees make
recommendations to the plenary and are also tasked with
observing developments in the assigned areas and preparing
responses to them. One of their responsibilities is to deal with
issues relating to religion. Most matters relating to religion are,
however, dealt with at the local or cantonal level.
The Parliament of Thailand has a House of Representatives
Standing Committee on Religions, Arts and Culture. The
committee’s mandate is to oversee issues pertaining to the
patronage, preservation and protection of religions and cultural
and historical sites, and the conservation and promotion of
local arts, tradition and culture. In addition, there is a Senate
Standing Committee on Religions, Morals, Ethics, Arts and
Culture. This committee considers bills and investigates
matters concerning religions, such as the patronage and
protection of religions, the conservation of local cultures and
wisdom, and the promotion of morals, virtues and ethics, Thai
culture, and identity. The committee also has the mandate to
monitor and make recommendations about national reform
and master plans of the national strategy.
49 UK Parliament, 2022c.
50 UK Parliament, 2022d.
51 Guyana 1980 (rev. 2016) Constitution, Article 212 D (f).
52 Guyana 1980 (rev. 2016) Constitution, Articles 212 A–212 F.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom has a Committee on
Human Rights and a statutory Ecclesiastical Committee.
Both are joint committees. The Committee on Human Rights
examines matters relating to human rights within the United
Kingdom, including freedom of religion or belief. It considers
government bills for their compatibility with human rights
standards and “scrutinises the Government’s response to
court judgments concerning human rights, and the UK’s
compliance with its human rights obligations contained
in a range of international treaties.
”49
The Ecclesiastical
Committee’s mandate is to examine draft measures which
have been submitted by the Legislative Committee of the
General Synod of the Church of England.50
Both committees
consist of members who have been appointed from the House
of Commons and the House of Lords.
The Constitution of Guyana stipulates the requirement to have
an Ethnic Relations Commission. The commission comprises
representatives of religious bodies, the labour movement,
the private sector, youth and women. Nominated members
require a two-thirds majority of parliament to be selected.
One of the mandates of this committee is to “encourage
and create respect for religious, cultural and other forms of
diversity in a plural society.
”51
It organizes activities to promote
social cohesion, reviews legislation, makes recommendations
to the National Assembly and investigates allegations of
discrimination. It submits a yearly report to the Speaker of the
National Assembly on its activities as well as ad hoc reports on
matters of importance.52
A seminar for parliamentary staff on interfaith dialogue, featuring panellists representing Buddhism, Islam and Christianity (March 2022).
© Parliament ofThailand
16
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Case study: 
Human rights committees of the Parliament of Romania
53 Romania National Institute of Statistics, 2022.
54 US DoS, 2022r.
55 Minority Rights Group International, 2020; Romania National Institute of Statistics, 2022.
56 Romania Camera Deputatilor, 2022.
57 IPU and UNDP, 2010.
Romania is a religiously plural country with high ethnic diversity.
According to provisional data from the 2022 census, the majority
confessions in Romania are Eastern Orthodox Christianity belonging
to the Romanian Orthodox Church (85.3%) and Roman Catholicism
(4.5%).53
There are also small numbers of Greek Catholics and
other Christian denominations, as well as non-Christian religions.
Less than 1% of the population is not affiliated with a religion or
belief.54
Romania has 20 recognized ethnic-minority communities,
and these fall within the mandate of the committees. Six per
cent of the population is Hungarian and 3.4% is Roma (though
unofficial data gives a higher number for the Roma population).
Other groups include Ukrainians, Germans, Turks, Lipovan Russians,
Tartars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Italians, Jews (variously
recognized as a religious or ethnic community), Poles, Greeks,
Czechs, Armenians, North Macedonians, Ruthenians
and Albanians.55
The Parliament of Romania has a Committee for Human Rights,
Cults and National Minorities Issues in the Chamber of Deputies
and a Committee for Human Rights, Equal Opportunities, Cults and
Minorities in the Senate.
The Chamber of Deputies committee is responsible for legislating on
human and citizens’ rights, minority issues, freedom of conscience,
the problems of religious cults and freedom of expression through
other means than the press.56
The committee can invite interested
persons, representatives of non-governmental organizations and
specialists from public authorities, professional bodies or other
specialized institutions to participate in its work. The invited
external participants can, upon request, present their opinions on
issues discussed in the committee or can provide to the chair of the
committee documentation related to the topic under discussion.
The Senate committee has the following main tasks:
a. It examines, with a view to adopting reports or opinions,
draft laws and legislative proposals concerning human rights,
national minorities, religious cults and the equality of chances
and treatment between men and women.
b. It requests reports, information and documents from public
authorities, conducts inquiries at the request of the Senate’s
Standing Bureau and reports back to the Standing Bureau.
c. It oversees the observance by ministries and other public
administration bodies, in their respective fields of activity, of
human rights and the rights of national minorities and religious
cults, as well as the observance of equal opportunities and the
equal treatment of men and women.
d. It invites specialists and representatives of public authorities
to its debates.
e. It may hold joint meetings together with other parliamentary
committees, with a view to drafting a joint report.
f. It may initiate parliamentary inquiries, within the limits and
according to the terms set out in the Senate’s standing orders.
g. It decides on the modalities of solving the petitions referred
to the committee by the Standing Bureau or those addressed
directly to the committee for examination.
h. It conducts hearings of the candidates for the position of
minister with responsibilities in the fields of human rights,
equal opportunities, cults and national minorities, together
with the corresponding committee of the Chamber of Deputies or
other standing committees of the Senate or Chamber of Deputies.
i. It draws up and submits to the Senate, for debate and
adoption, reports on the nominations, confirmations or opinions
for the positions for which, according to the Constitution and
the law, the appointments are made by the Senate.
The draft legislation examined by the Senate committee, relating to
religion and belief, aims at:
• Eliminating all forms of discrimination based on sex, race,
nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, social category, beliefs,
sexual orientation, culture, economic and social status, marital
status, or disabilities.
• Eliminating all forms of discrimination whose objective or
consequence is the restriction or removal of fundamental human
rights and liberties or other rights recognized by law in the
political, economic, social, cultural or other fields.
Traditionally, both committees have been chaired by a
parliamentarian from one of the minority communities. This allows
the minority members of parliament to exert an influence over the
work of the committee.57
17
3. Representation: Reserved seats
3. Representation: Reserved seats
58 IPU and UNDP, 2010.
59 Considering lower chambers, upper chambers and unicameral parliaments. See: IPU 2022b.
60 IPU, 2022c.
61 US DoS, 2022q.
62 IPU, 2022d. Iran (Islamic Republic of) 1979 (Rev. 1989) Constitution, Articles 13 and 64.
63 US DoS, 2022k.
64 Data is from the 2011 census, as reported in: US DoS 2022f.
65 IPU, 2022e.
66 US DoS, 2022l.
67 IPU, 2022f.
68 US DoS, 2022n.
69 US DoS, 2022p.
Parliaments were asked to share examples of practices
promoting the political representation of persons from different
religions and beliefs. This builds on previous IPU publications
about minority and indigenous representation in parliament.58
Parline, the IPU platform which provides open access to data
on national parliaments, contains data from 61 parliaments
which have reserved seats for certain groups in parliament in
one or both chambers.59
This data encompasses a variety of
categories where seats have been reserved for certain groups.
Such categories include gender, ethnicity and religion. Below
are a few examples of how parliaments ensure the political
representation of persons from different religions and beliefs.
In the National Assembly of the Parliament of Pakistan, 10
seats (out of 342) are reserved for non-Muslims. In the Senate,
4 seats (out of 100) are reserved for non-Muslims.60
According
to the 2017 census, 96% of the population of Pakistan is
Muslim (Sunni or Shia) and the remaining 4% comprises more
than 10 different religious groups.61
The Parliament of the Islamic Republic of Iran has 5
reserved seats (out of 290) for the different ethno-religious
communities recognized by the Constitution, including 1 seat
for Zoroastrians, 1 seat for Jews, 1 seat for Assyrian and
Chaldean Christians and 2 seats for Armenian Christians.62
According to data from the Iranian Government, 99.4% of the
population is Muslim – about 90–95% is Shia and 5–10% is
Sunni. The remaining less than 1% is believed to comprise
Baha’is, Christians, Kakai/Yarsans, Jews, Sabean-Mandaeans
and Zoroastrians.63
The Constitution of Cyprus provides that the Armenians, the
Latins and the Maronites, as religious groups, may choose
to belong to either the Greek-Cypriot or the Turkish-Cypriot
community. The religious groups of the Armenians, the
Latins and the Maronites opted to belong to the Greek-
Cypriot community and therefore were represented in the
Greek Communal Chamber by elected representatives, until
the transfer of the Chamber’s legislative functions to the
House of Representatives in March 1965. In 1970, the House
enacted the Law on Religious Groups (Representation),
which provides for the representation of each religious group
in the House by one representative, who is elected among
his/her respective group according to the provisions of the
electoral law. Ever since, the three representatives of the
religious groups have been elected for a term of five years,
like representatives of the House. They attend committee
meetings to express their views on matters concerning their
group. The three representatives of the religious groups also
attend plenary meetings of the House without, however, a
right to vote. They also enjoy the same rights and privileges
(non-liability, immunity, remuneration, tax exemptions) as other
representatives. According to the 2011 census, 89.1% of the
population is Greek Orthodox, 2.9% is Roman Catholic, 2%
is Protestant and 1.8% is Muslim. Approximately 1% of the
population is Buddhist, 0.5% is Maronite Catholic and 0.3%
is Armenian Orthodox. There are also smaller populations of
Jews, Jehovah’s Witnesses and Baha’is.64
The Parliament of Iraq (Council of Representatives) has 9 seats
(out of 329) which are reserved for minority ethno-religious
groups. Of those, Christians have five allocated seats, and the
Sabean-Mandean and Yazidi communities each have one.65
The
most recent government statistics from Iraq are from 2010 and
indicate that 97% of the population is Muslim (55–60% Shia
and 40% Sunni). Other ethno-religious communities consist of
Christians, Yazidis, Sabean-Mandeans and Kakai (or Yarsan).66
The lower chamber (House of Representatives) of the
Parliament of Jordan has 12 (out of 115) seats reserved for
minority groups, and of those 9 are for Christians.67
The United
States Government estimates the religious demographics of
Jordan to be 97
.1% Muslim (Sunni) and 2.1% Christian. Other
communities which comprise less than 1% of the population
include Buddhist, Baha’i, Hindu and Druze.68
The Parliament of Mauritius has 8 seats (out of 70) reserved
for ethno-religious communities to ensure their representation.
The First Schedule to the Constitution acknowledges
the existence of four communities in Mauritius: a Hindu
community, a Muslim community and a Sino-Mauritian
community, plus the general population, regarded as a fourth
community comprising persons who do not identify with the
other three communities. Data from a 2011 census indicates
a religiously diverse population of which 48% is Hindu, 26%
is Roman Catholic, 17% is Muslim (largely Sunni), 6% are
non-Roman Catholic Christian and 3% are Buddhist, Baha’i,
animists or non-affiliated.69
The Constitution of Mauritius states
that “[i]n order to ensure a fair and adequate representation
of each community, there shall be 8 seats in the Assembly,
additional to the 62 seats for members representing
constituencies, which shall so far as is possible be allocated
to persons belonging to parties who have stood as candidates
for election.
” This is known as the “Best Loser System” as
the seats are allocated to candidates who were not able to
independently win one of the 62 seats. The first four of the
eight seats are allocated to candidates who have the best
results from the most under-represented ethno-religious
community. The second four seats are allocated to candidates
from the political party which has attained the highest number
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Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
of seats in the election, but those candidates are selected
from the most under-represented ethno-religious group.
The upper chamber (House of Lords) of the Parliament of the
United Kingdom allocates 26 seats (out of 776, currently) to
the Lords Spiritual, comprising archbishops and bishops of the
Church of England. Upon retirement, their seat is inherited
by the next most senior bishop, with the exception of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, who is usually appointed a life peer.70
In Lebanon, power sharing between different religions has
existed since the National Pact of 1943. It stipulated that the
Speaker of Parliament would be a Shia Muslim while the
Prime Minister would be a Sunni Muslim and the President a
Maronite Christian – in line with the relative size of religious
communities as determined by the 1932 census. Quotas for
representative seats were outlined by the National Pact and
revised by the Taif Agreement of 1989 which helped end the
long civil war.
The upper chamber (House of Peoples) of the Parliamentary
Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina has reserved seats
based on ethnic affiliation. Its 15 members are from two
entities that constitute the Bosnian State. Ten are from the
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (five Croats and five
Bosniacs) and five are from the Republika Srpska (Serbs).71
These quotas based on ethnicity can also be viewed as
70 UK Parliament, 2022a.
71 IPU, 2022g.
72 US DoS, 2022c.
73 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995 (rev. 2009) Constitution, Article IV (1).
74 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2022; ABS, 2017.
75 Interview conducted in 2022.
ethno-religious quotas as, generally speaking, the Croats
predominantly identify as Roman Catholic, the Bosniacs as
Muslim and the Serbs as Serbian Orthodox.72
This division
of the House of Peoples is laid out in the Constitution from
1995,73
following the end of a conflict that had a strong
ethno-religious dimension.
Other parliaments did not have quotas but stated that, as their
societies diversified, this too was reflected in the identity of the
elected representatives. Milton Dick, Speaker of the Australian
House of Representatives, was elected to his first term as
Speaker following federal elections in May 2022. Speaker
Dick believes that the current Parliament of Australia is the
most diverse the country has ever seen. For the first time,
Australia has a senator wearing a hijab in its national parliament.
According to the 2021 census, Islam constitutes 3.2% of the
population of Australia, up from 2.6% in the 2016 census.74
The Parliament of Austria reflects similarly:
“In recent years, parliamentarians have come from
more diverse religious backgrounds and beliefs
and started to make those public. The political
representation of persons from different religions
and beliefs is not the result of specific practices but a
delayed effect of religious pluralization as well as the
general decline of religion in Austrian society.
”75
A creation by Sigmund Pollitzer, depicting the sun as life-giver, surrounded by Arabic and Cypro-Syllabic script, ancient vessels, a
Franco-Byzantine church, part of a mosque (a minaret) and Saint Mamas on a lion’s back, all framed by tragedy and demon masks.
© Parliament of Cyprus
19
4. Consultation
4. Consultation
76 The Global Parliamentary Report 2022 contains a broader section on consultation and emphasizes that “[t]he most widespread and established form of consultation is committee hearings”.
See: IPU and UNDP, 2022, p. 28.
77 US DoS, 2022m.
78 Interview conducted in 2022.
79 Interview conducted in 2022.
A number of parliaments have mechanisms in place that
facilitate consultation with stakeholders with different
expertise from a spectrum of interest groups in society,
including religious actors and representatives of belief
systems. Key ways of consulting with external voices are
through inviting experts to committee meetings, inviting
religious actors to parliament and holding public hearings.76
4.1. Committee meetings
Many parliaments have the obligation or the opportunity to
invite witnesses or experts to give testimony at committee
meetings or to submit written input. A number of parliaments
shared examples of their own consultation mechanisms in
which representatives of religions or belief systems could
participate in parliamentary work.
In the Parliament of Canada, individuals can participate in
studies undertaken by parliamentary committees, either by
appearing before the committee in person or by providing
written submissions. Individuals and entities can also petition
parliament using a well-established petition process.
In the Gambia, relevant actors are asked by parliament to
submit input on particular draft legislation, which is reviewed
before the legislation is adopted.
In the Parliament of Latvia, any public non-governmental
organization may apply to participate in the parliamentary
body’s meetings when draft laws are being discussed.
The Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly of Lebanon
explicitly state that, during the meetings of the parliamentary
committees, leaders or representatives of religious bodies can
be summoned to attend and share their opinions during the
discussion of bills or proposals of relevant laws.
In the Parliament of Spain, in all legislative procedures, the
standing orders of the lower and upper chambers provide for
the possibility of expert hearings, the opinions from which are
presented in the commissions.
In the Parliament of Switzerland, there is a statutory
consultation procedure, where draft bills are evaluated for
accuracy, enforceability and acceptability. If a draft bill touches
on religious beliefs, the relevant bodies are invited to review
the draft bill before it is submitted to the parliament.
4.2. 
Inviting religious groups
to parliament
A number of parliaments invite representatives of religious
groups and belief systems to parliament periodically for
exchanges on issues of common interest.
The Republic of Ireland is a Roman Catholic-majority country
(78%) with 10% professing no religious affiliation and 3%
identifying as Anglican. Muslims, Orthodox Christians,
other Christians and other religions constitute 5% of the
population.77
The Ceann Comhairle (Speaker) of the Dáil
Éireann (lower chamber) of the Oireachtas (parliament) of
Ireland, Seán Ó Fearghaíl, introduced a practice of inviting
representatives of all the religious groups into parliament for
a twice-yearly dinner followed by cross-party discussions on
relevant issues and how they might be approached. One such
example was looking at the housing crisis in Ireland. Religious
representatives and faith-based organizations are relevant
actors for the parliament as many are active in combating
poverty. In addition to meeting with religious leaders, Speaker
Ó Fearghaíl has also met with the atheist representative group
in Ireland. His personal motivation for starting this initiative he
explains as follows:
“Politics is not just about leading, it is also about
service, and religion in one shape or another is about
leading and it is also about service, so we have a
common interest in serving the needs of the people
that we represent. It is far better that we at least
understand each other if we are not in fact going to be
working hand in glove with each other.
”78
This sentiment is echoed by a young MP from the United
Arab Emirates, Meera Al-Suwaidi, who said: “When you
look at interfaith, there is a very strong correlation to serving
the public. It’s a very important aspect to look at from a
parliamentary view.
”79
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Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
In the Seychelles, a small Roman Catholic-majority country
with Anglican, Hindu, Muslim, Baha’i and other Christian
minorities, there is an active interfaith scene.80
The Seychelles
Interfaith Council (SIFCO) was launched in 2012 during the
World Interfaith Harmony Week, an annual UN Observance
week.81
SIFCO is invited by parliament to present its views on
various issues of national importance and is also in dialogue
with the government.
Similarly, in Sierra Leone, the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra
Leone (IRCSL) has a number of functions, including advising
the government – up to the president – and the parliament
in their work, and also promoting social cohesion throughout
the country. The IRCSL was founded in 1997 and played an
important role in shaping the Lomé Peace Agreement of 1999,
which contributed to ending the eight-year civil war.82
Sierra
Leone is a country of about 7 million people. Government
statistics from 2020 indicate that 77% of the population is
Muslim and 22% is Christian. Traditional religions are practised
by about 2% of the population.83
Sierra Leone has a history of
peaceful interfaith coexistence, including intermarriage.
In Ghana – a Christian-majority country with a strong Muslim
community of about 18% and smaller communities of other
believers – parliamentary consultations with religious groups
on interfaith issues are a regular feature.84
The interests of
different religions are represented by identified groups and
80 US DoS, 2022t.
81 United Nations, 2022.
82 Turay in Lord, 2000.
83 US DoS, 2022u.
84 US DoS, 2022h.
85 US DoS, 2022b.
86 US DoS, 2022s.
associations. These groups include the Christian Council of
Ghana, the Ghana Pentecostal Council, the Catholic Bishops’
Conference and the Office of the National Chief Imam.
In Belarus, a Christian Orthodox-majority country with
Roman Catholic and non-affiliated minorities, dialogue exists
between the national parliament and representatives of
religious communities who are invited to the parliament to
discuss issues of common interest in the form of dialogue
platforms and expert sessions.85
For instance, in 2021, a
visiting session of the upper chamber of the Parliament of
Belarus was held on the prevention of alcoholism and drug
addiction, with the active participation of the Belarusian
Orthodox Church.
The Federation Council of Russia holds “Christmas
parliamentary meetings” which are attended by leaders of
groups from religious traditions such as Christianity, Islam,
Buddhism and Judaism, together with legislators, cultural and
educational figures. According to the Russian Parliament, these
meetings contribute to interreligious dialogue and promote
cooperation. According to a 2021 poll, over 60% of the Russian
population identifies as Orthodox Christian and 7% as Muslim.
There are also small communities of Buddhists, Protestants,
Catholics, Jews and others. Twenty-six per cent report having
no religion.86
Ghana, a Christian-majority country with a strong Muslim community. © Musa Alcan / Anadolu Agency / Anadolu Agency via AFP
21
4. Consultation
4.3. Public participation
When the public is invited to participate in parliamentary
processes, religious actors and organizations can participate in
their capacity as individual members of the public, as well as
community leaders who have influence over public opinion. A
number of parliaments shared insights from their own public
consultation processes.
In the Parliament of Denmark, public hearings are an integrated
part of all new legislation.
The legislative process in the Parliament of Rwanda actually
requires the consultation of citizens. Any revision of a bill must
see the participation of the branch of the population directly
concerned. Faith-based organizations are involved in processes
through their representatives and by the coordination of the
Rwanda Governance Board.
87 Kenya 2010 Constitution.
88 US DoS, 2022g.
89 Public Defender (Ombudsman) of Georgia, 2022a.
90 Georgia 1995 (rev. 2018) Constitution.
91 Public Defender (Ombudsman) of Georgia, 2022b.
In the Parliament of Kenya, public participation in the work of
parliament is guaranteed by the Constitution. Article 118.1.b of
the 2010 Kenyan Constitution states that “Parliament shall […]
facilitate public participation and involvement in the legislative
and other business of Parliament and its committees.
”87
Former Kenyan MP Jacqueline Oduol says that radio and
newspapers are heavily used as tools to make the public aware
of an issue and invite them to share input.
In Montenegro, public participation is conducted by consulting
specific organizations and individuals in the preparation of a
bill followed by a public discussion on the text of the bill. The
latter occurs by the ministry publishing the text of the bill on
its website and e-governance portal and inviting the public
to share comments within a set time frame. After the public
consultation is completed, the ministry compiles a report
which is also published on its website and e-governance portal.
Since organizations and individuals can be engaged in the
public discussion process, representatives of different religious
and belief groups can be included in this procedure.
Case study: 
Consultation via an intermediary – the Public Defender in Georgia
Georgiais a country of high ethnic and religious diversity. A 2014
census estimated that 83.4% of the population belonged to the
Georgian Orthodox Church, 10.7% identified as Muslim and 2.9%
as belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church. The other 3% of
the population was divided between Roman Catholics, Yezidis,
Greek Orthodox, Jews and other newer religious communities,
such as Baptists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Pentecostals, the
International Society of Krishna Consciousness and those of no
religious affiliation.88
In Georgia, religious bodies – especially the Georgian Orthodox
Church – hold significant influence in society, though there is no
established parliamentary mechanism to engage with them. One
way this is achieved is through the Public Defender, a national
human rights mechanism which is written into Article 35 of the
Georgian Constitution.89
The mandate of the Public Defender is the
“supervision of the protection of human rights within the territory of
Georgia”.90
The Public Defender is elected by parliament for a term
of six years, by a three-fifths majority of members.
The Public Defender is an independent constitutional mechanism
for the observation of human rights, though as this mechanism
reports to parliament it can also be viewed as a parliamentary tool.
The Public Defender reports to parliament on a permanent basis on
rights-based issues, including those relating to freedom of religion
or belief, and also shares recommendations. The Public Defender
established a Council of Religions in 2005 which comprises 32
religious associations. It brings together the representatives of the
religious groups in Georgia and offers a platform for them to share
concerns, such as infringements of minority or other rights, and to
exchange on different topics. This provides an indirect opportunity
for parliament to be aware of the concerns and needs of religious
groups. The Public Defender also has a Council of Ethnic Minorities
and has established a Tolerance Centre which promotes social
cohesion in Georgia through different activities and also monitors
and addresses instances of intolerance perpetrated against ethnic,
religious or other minority groups.91
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Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
5. Parliamentary activities
92 UK Parliament, 2022b.
93 UK Parliament, 2023.
94 Longhurst, 2021.
95 Canadian Interfaith Conversation, 2021.
In addition to engaging with religion and belief in the formal
work of parliament, through legislation, committees, hearings
and different types of consultation processes, parliaments
have additional activities centred around religion or belief.
5.1. Non-partisan common
interest groups
A number of parliaments lack standardized advisory and
consultation mechanisms. Some of them have cross-party
groups around certain faith-based issues. While they are
located in parliament, they are not parliamentary bodies.
They exist due to the efforts of parliamentarians who come
together across party lines to engage in issues of common
interest or concern.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom has a number of
All-Party Parliamentary Groups (APPGs) which focus on issues
related to religion and belief. They bring together members of
both chambers on the basis of a common interest in a policy
area, region or country and can also involve external individuals
or organizations in their work.92
The list of current APPGs
is updated every six weeks. As of February 2023, the UK
Parliament counted more than 700 APPGs.93
A number of APPGs are concerned with religion and belief.
Currently there are APPGs on International Freedom of
Religion or Belief, Alevis, Safeguarding in Faith Communities,
Baha’i Faith, Faith and Society, Ahmadiyya Muslim
Community, Muslim Women, Antisemitism, British Jews,
British Sikhs, British Muslims, Hajj and Umrah, Religious
Education, Christianity in the Holy Land, and the Council of
Sri Lankan Muslim Organisations UK. Several other APPGs
address issues which have, at least partly, a faith-based
dimension, such as APPGs on Hate Crime, Inclusive Growth,
Rohingya, and Uyghurs.
In the Parliament of Canada, neither the Senate nor the House
of Commons has an official parliamentary body to deal with
religions or beliefs. Senators and members of the House
of Commons can form unofficial caucuses on any topic of
their choosing, including religion and beliefs. An All-Party
Parliamentary Interfaith Caucus was launched in 2021 “with
the goal of bringing together parliamentarians interested in the
intersection of faith and politics.
”94
Caucuses do not receive
funding or administrative support from parliament and their
deliberations are not considered parliamentary proceedings.
The Interfaith Caucus aims to promote dialogue between
Canadian parliamentarians and national religious communities
on issues of common interest or concern and to increase
Canadian parliamentarians’ understanding and appreciation
of Canada’s religious communities and their contribution to
society. It engages with civil society and supports initiatives
which promote understanding between different religions
and beliefs. The Interfaith Caucus also organizes an interfaith
prayer breakfast.95
The Co-Chair of the Caucus, MP Daniel Blaikie, sees great
value in these kinds of interfaith initiatives as providing an
opportunity for people to express, in an appropriate way,
their religious commitments and how these influence their
politics. Although Canada does not have an official religion,
Blaikie acknowledges the important role that religion can
play in influencing people’s political views. While he does
not believe that the views or values of one particular religion
should influence the Canadian State’s position on issues, he
underlines the importance of acknowledging people’s religion
or belief and the role it plays in shaping their political position.
He sees in the Interfaith Caucus:
“an opportunity to try and identify some kind of hot
button political issues […] and to try and set the stage
for exactly this kind of dialogue we’re talking about
where we can get different faith perspectives on a
particular issue and hear from experts who are situated
themselves within a certain faith tradition. And then
also hear from Parliamentarians too in order to try
and foster a positive and a safe place for that kind of
discussion of how faith can inform people’s political
positions on various important issues of the day.
”
In a similar vein, the Parliament of Australia has Parliamentary
Friendship Groups, though at present none have a specific
focus on religion or belief.
23
5. Parliamentary activities
The Parliament of Kenya has a network called Catholic MPs
Spiritual Support Initiative (CAMPSSI). It is a cross-party
caucus consisting of Catholic members of the Kenyan
Parliament, with the goal of providing them “with spiritual
accompaniment and formation, network them with like minds
globally and provide the missing link between the political
regime within the Kenyan Parliament and the Church hierarchy
aimed at increasing interactive relations for the common
good.
”96
The origins of the network began in 2008 when the
country was experiencing post-election violence and there was
a concern to bridge the gap between the parties on the basis
of shared common values, such as those that are faith-based.
Informal meetings began in 2011, and in 2012 the CAMPSSI
caucus was founded when the network of Catholic
parliamentarians began a formal partnership with Tangaza
University College in Tanzania. The goal was to complement
the cross-party networking with an institution that could
support parliamentarians in particular in the areas of
socio-economic development. The caucus meets weekly,
celebrating a eucharist and then holding a network meeting.
Once a month they hold a School of Politics, which is an
opportunity for parliamentarians to further educate themselves
on different legislation passed in parliament. CAMPSSI also
supports projects of local churches and organizes interfaith
activities. In 2013, CAMPSSI was officially recognized by the
Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops.97
96 CAMPSSI, 2022.
97 Ibid.
98 Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, 2022.
5.2. 
Annual debate on
freedom of religion
or belief
The UK Parliament has an annual debate on freedom of
religion or belief, which focuses on threats to religious
freedom worldwide. In 2022, the UK Government held an
International Ministerial Conference on Freedom of Religion
or Belief, which was attended by government members,
parliamentarians, civil society representatives, subject matter
experts and representatives of religions and beliefs, to discuss
contemporary global issues threatening freedom of religion
or belief. This conference attracted international attention and
high-profile panellists.98
US President Joe Biden speaks during the 71st National Prayer Breakfast at the US Capitol in Washington, DC, on 2 February 2023.
© Andrew Caballero-Reynolds / AFP
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Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
5.3. Religious celebrations
The Parliament of Ghana organizes a Festival of Nine
Lessons and Carols, a service celebrating the coming birth
of Jesus. It is traditionally held on Christmas Eve, though
the service organized by the parliament is held a few days
before Christmas. It is attended by the Speaker of Parliament,
parliamentarians, members of government and some clergy.
The Parliament of Ghana also holds a celebration for Eid
al-Adha. On both occasions, Members from both the
Christian and Muslim religions participate in the services.
A number of parliaments have cross-party prayer groups.
The Parliament of Lithuania has a Provisional Prayer Group
for Roman Catholic members. The Parliaments of Romania
and Hungary have ecumenical prayer groups. In Hungary, the
prayer group is led by the chair of the Committee on Justice,
which is one of the committees also responsible for religious
affairs. The Hungarian ecumenical prayer group conducted a
24-hour prayer chain on the first anniversary of the Russian
invasion of Ukraine.
The Parliament of Australia has a Parliamentary Christian
Fellowship, which comes together weekly for a prayer session
in Parliament House. The Fellowship also organizes the annual
prayer breakfast in the Australian Parliament.
Other parliaments which celebrate an annual national prayer
breakfast include the United Kingdom (National Parliamentary
Prayer Breakfast), Kenya (National Prayer Breakfast) and the US
Congress (National Prayer Breakfast).
99 Ramos-Horta, 2022.
100 US DoS, 2022x.
5.4. Ad hoc symbolic events
Following the Christchurch mosque shootings in 2019,
in which 51 people died and 40 were injured when an
armed man entered two mosques during Friday prayer
and shot worshippers, the Parliament of New Zealand
invited a delegation of interfaith religious leaders for a service
in parliament. The parliament suspended its rules for this
service, which would normally not allow for “strangers” –
or non-parliamentarians – to enter into the debate chamber.
Former MP Louisa Wall said, “the country came together,
we were united in our grief”
.
In 2019, Pope Francis and the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, Ahmed
El Tayeb, jointly signed a watershed interfaith document on
Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together, which
has since laid the foundation for many interfaith conferences
and is also behind the UN-designated International Day of
Human Fraternity, celebrated on 4 February each year. In
2022, Timor-Leste became the first country to adopt the
principles of the document on human fraternity into its
national values. Following the presidential elections in March/
April 2022, the newly elected President José Ramos-Horta
submitted the document to the national parliament, which
unanimously agreed to adopt it and commit to its values of
global peace, dialogue and respect for human rights. The
President further intends to include this document in school
curricula, and the parliament encouraged the government
and citizens to promote its values of peaceful coexistence.99
Timor-Leste is one of two Christian-majority countries in Asia,
the other being the Philippines. Census data indicates that
97
.6% of the population is Catholic, 2% is Protestant and less
than 1% is Muslim.100
25
6. Parliamentary attitudes towards religion and belief
6. Parliamentary attitudes
towards religion and belief
101 For a detailed analysis of parliamentary prayers, see also: Library & Research Service (L&RS), 2016. This report also provides some insights into spaces such as a prayer room, chapel,
meditation room or mosque in some parliaments.
102 Parliament of Guyana, 2018.
103 Bosc and Gagnon, 2017.
104 Parliament of Australia, 2022a; Parliament of Australia, 2022b.
Parliaments stand at the nexus between the tradition in which
a country is steeped and upon which its institutions were
established, and the values of its contemporary citizens.
This is often visible in how religion or belief is expressed in
parliament. There can be an ambivalence in the respective
practices depending on whether or not they have been
updated to reflect the actual diversity of society.
6.1. Prayers before
parliamentary sittings101
A number of parliaments, including the parliaments of Tanzania,
Malta, the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia,
Guyana and Canada, begin each session of one or both
chambers with a prayer. For many of these, the prayer has
been adapted over the years.
At the beginning of each sitting of the National Assembly of
the Parliament of Guyana, a prayer is recited. When Guyana
gained independence from Britain in 1966, the tradition of the
prayer was kept but it was adapted to reflect the country’s
ethnic and religious diversity and heritage. Speaker Manzoor
Nadir explained: “It is a general prayer. We have so many
religions and the three main religions – Christians, Muslims,
Hindus – are basically treated equally. We also have other
faiths – Baha’i, Rastafarian and persons with their own beliefs.
”
The prayer is adapted from the words of the Indian poet
Rabindranath Tagore:
“Almighty God, we, who are here gathered together,
do most humbly beseech Thee, to guide us in all our
consultations, so that we may together build a land
where knowledge is free, where the mind is without
fear, and the head is held high, and where words come
from the depth of truth.
Grant us, O God, Thine aid and guidance, so that we
may deal justly, with the several causes that come
before us, laying aside all private interests, prejudices
and personal preferences, so that the result of our
counsels may be to the glory of thy Blessed Name, the
maintenance of true religion, the preservation of justice,
the safety, honour and happiness of the President, and
the peace and prosperity of Guyana.
Grant us, O God, the vision so to lead, that all the
people of this fair land may enter into that state of
brotherhood and unity, where the mind is led forward
by thee into ever widening thought and action.
”102
The lower chamber of the Parliament of Ireland begins each
day with a Christian prayer which is recited by the Speaker. A
period of quiet reflection has been added for those who do not
wish to participate in the prayer.
In the Parliament of New Zealand, the prayer or karakia
is read out in a variety of languages, including the official
spoken languages of New Zealand: English and te reo Mãori
(the language of the indigenous population of mainland New
Zealand, the Mãori people). New Zealand also celebrates
different language weeks throughout the year, and the
parliament may read the prayer in the language of that week,
for instance in Mandarin or one of the Pacific Island languages.
In the Parliament of Canada, a prayer is read each sitting day
in both the Senate and the House of Commons. The prayer
is read in private, prior to the doors of either chamber having
been opened to the public. The prayer is the first order of
business in both chambers, pursuant to the Rules of the
Senate and the Standing Orders of the House of Commons.
According to the House of Commons Procedure and Practice
from 1994, “the House concurred in a report recommending
a new form of prayer more reflective of the different religions
embraced by Canadians.
”103
The Standing Orders for both the Senate and the House of
Commons of the Parliament of Australia require each daily
session to begin with a prayer and an acknowledgement of
country. Both the Speaker of the House of Representatives
and the President of the Senate read the acknowledgement of
country, which refers to the traditional custodians of the land
on which the parliamentary session is taking place, before a
prayer for the work of parliament and the Lord’s Prayer.104
In the House of Commons of the Parliament of the
United Kingdom, daily prayers are carried out before the
commencement of a public sitting. The prayers are conducted
by the Speaker’s Chaplain.
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Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Prayers in the UK House of Commons and the Speaker’s Chaplain
105 UK Parliament, 2022e.
106 Christians in Parliament (APPG), 2022.
The tradition of reading daily prayers in the House of Commons is
believed to date back to the 16th century when, records suggest,
these tasks were undertaken by the Clerk of the House of Commons.
In 1660, a chaplain replaced the Clerk in this function, earning the
title Chaplain for the Commons. In the 1830s, the Chaplain became
salaried and the role gradually expanded beyond prayers. It became
tradition for the Speaker to select the Chaplain. When the Chaplain
conducts the daily prayers, there is a degree of ritual attached to it:
“Prayers take place immediately after the Speaker’s procession
to the Chamber. Only Members are allowed to be present in the
Chamber during prayers, and by tradition, they stand up and face the
benches rather than the centre of the House while prayers are said.
The origins of this custom are unclear, but it is thought this practice
developed due to the difficulty Members would historically have
faced of kneeling to pray while wearing a sword.”105
The tasks of the present day Speaker’s Chaplain include reading
the given daily prayers in the House of Commons chamber and
introducing topical elements, conducting a weekly Eucharist at the
Parliamentary Chapel (St. Mary Undercroft), occasional special
services and a monthly service followed by a speaker and discussion
in St. Margaret’s Westminster Abbey for MPs and Peers. The
Chaplain also cares for the pastoral needs of parliamentarians
and members of staff, as part of which they officiate at baptisms,
weddings and memorial services. The Speaker’s Chaplain also has
a ceremonial function, working with the Speaker’s team on acts of
commemoration, celebration and consolation for the parliamentary
community such as the marking of Holocaust Memorial Day, Armed
Forces Day and events to mark the death of a serving MP.
The Speaker’s Chaplain works closely with the Christians in
Parliament APPG, which holds Bible study and prayer groups,
speaker events and discussion groups, policy discussion and
briefings – all related to issues intersecting with Christian faith
and theology. This APPG also organizes a National Parliamentary
Prayer Breakfast.106
In recent times it has been possible to restore the previously
long-standing link with Westminster Abbey, and the Speaker’s
Chaplain also serves as a Canon of Westminster.
Lindsay Hoyle, Speaker of the UK House of Commons with chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons, ReverendTricia Hillas.
© UK Parliament
27
6. Parliamentary attitudes towards religion and belief
6.2. Dress codes
107 Assemblée nationale, 2018.
108 President’s Office Public Service Management and Good Governance, 2020.
109 Law No. 2010-1192 of 2010.
110 Federal Council, 2022.
In some traditions, religion or belief can also be expressed
through clothing. Common examples include the turban, worn
by Sikh men, a kippah – also known as a yarmulke, skullcap or
koppel – worn by some Jewish men, or head coverings, worn
by some Muslim women. A number of parliaments have a
dress code and there have been debates in some parliaments
about the degree to which this infringes upon the religious
rights of parliamentarians.
Some examples of different attitudes towards clothing in
parliaments include:
Article 209 of the Rules of the House of Councillors of the
Parliament of Japan states: “No one shall enter the Chamber
or Committee meeting rooms with a hat, overcoat, scarf,
umbrella, stick and the like on or with him.
”
In the Parliament of Canada, Speakers of the Senate and
House of Commons have by convention allowed Senators and
MPs to wear religious clothing when participating in debates in
both chambers.
In 2018, the lower chamber (Assemblée nationale) of the
Parliament of France amended its Rules of Procedure to
introduce a “neutral” dress code which banned members from
“the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols, uniforms,
logos or commercial messages or political slogans.
”107
This
regulation not only banned Muslim women from wearing
headscarves, but also Jewish men from wearing skullcaps or
Sikh men from wearing a turban. The ruling was prompted by a
member of parliament wearing a football jersey while speaking
about taxing the transfer of football players. Article 9 of the
General Instructions for the National Assembly now clarifies
that “in the hemicycle, expression is exclusively oral.
”
In 2021, the Government of Tanzania released a pamphlet
visually depicting the dress code guidelines for public
servants, including members of parliament. The pamphlet,
which references a public service document from 2020,
shows acceptable and unacceptable clothing for female
and male public servants in casual, smart casual and smart
settings. The new guidelines clarify that for a woman, a
headscarf is permitted to be worn with any of the prescribed
clothing choices.108
Case study: 
Head and face coverings
The issue of head and face coverings has been debated in different
parliaments around the world, especially with regard to the veiling
of Muslim women.
Legislation exists in some States which requires women to wear
a head covering in public. The Islamic Republic of Iran has made
veiling in public mandatory since 1983, with punishment for
non-adherence outlined in the Islamic Punishment Law.
Other States have legislation which prohibits certain coverings –
ranging from a veil which covers the head and hair, to a covering
where either only the eyes of the woman are visible (niqab) or
the whole face is covered (burqa)– in public spaces or in public
schools, universities and government buildings. In 2004, the French
Parliament passed a law on secularity and conspicuous religious
symbols, banning symbols or clothing which clearly show religious
affiliation, including head coverings, from public schools. This was
followed in 2010 by a law prohibiting the concealment of the face
in public spaces.109
This ban includes anything that hides the face,
not only the niqab or burqa but also masks, balaclavas or helmets,
but it does not prohibit head coverings such as the hijab, skullcap or
turban, which do not obscure the face.
The Swiss Confederation organized a national referendum in
March 2021 responding to an initiative from the Swiss People’s
Party on whether to ban full-face coverings. The Swiss Federal
Council and Parliament itself spoke out against the proposal and
offered a counter-proposal – valid if the referendum were to fail –
which demanded that people show their face when necessary for
identification purposes. This suggestion also included measures
to strengthen women’s rights, for instance, to encourage efforts
to integrate immigrant women instead of further excluding them
through prohibitions which come with referendums.110
Despite this
alternative suggestion, the referendum passed with a majority of
51.2% voting “yes”. It is now prohibited to wear full face coverings
in public, including a burqa or a niqab. Internationally, a total of 16
States have a full or partial ban on face coverings.
The majority of States have no official regulation about wearing
face or head coverings in public, though religious authorities’ stance
towards religious dress can be influential. Islam has its own legal
framework which includes making Islamic legal rulings, known as
fatwas. National legislation is therefore not the only or even the
primary authority in some communities with regard to religious
dress and behaviour.
The reasons that some religious authorities or state legislation
oblige women to wear a face or head covering comes from
an interpretation of the Qur’an and the Hadith, two pillars of
Islamic jurisprudence.
28
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
There are varying reasons given for banning women from wearing
face coverings or a veil. In Chad, a Muslim-majority country in the
Sahel region of Africa where religious extremism is threatening
regional stability, the burqa was banned by the government after
suicide bombings were perpetrated by Nigerian Boko Haram
militants wearing burqas. Security concerns have been cited by
other parliaments and governments as the reason behind bans on
face veils, especially as a full-face covering makes it more difficult
to identify someone.111
Other reasons for banning or criticizing
the face veil, especially in the Western European context, include
viewing it as incompatible with the values of different expressions
of secularism, as incompatible with the broader culture and values
of society or with liberal democracy, as a sign of radical or political
Islam, as a tool of oppression or coercion of women, and as
impeding the reciprocity inherent in communication.112
There have been criticisms of these reasons as being disingenuous.
Dissenting voices say that these laws are driven in some societies
111 Grillo and Shah, 2012.
112 Ibid.
by Islamophobia and anti-Muslim sentiment. Canadian Muslim
Senator Salma Ataullahjan observes that the regulations around
masking since the coronavirus pandemic have clearly shown that the
debate around the burqa is highly racialized. The recommendation to
wear masks can lead to a similar result in one’s appearance, but is
free of the stigma attached to the niqab or burqa.
Banning different forms of Islamic dress has been criticized by
some as contravening the right to externally manifest religion or
belief. Turkish MP Ravza Kavakci Kan described a long-standing
ban on wearing headscarves in public institutions in Türkiye as “an
institutional form of discrimination”. Ms. Kavakci Kan says that
she wore the veil out of her own religious conviction. As she was
not allowed to wear a veil at any public university she decided to
complete her studies in the United States of America, where her
religious freedom was guaranteed. The ban on wearing the veil in
public institutions in Türkiye was lifted in 2013.
Turkish MP Ravza Kavakci Kan attending the 146th IPU Assembly in Manama, Bahrain. © IPU/Parliament of Bahrain
29
6. Parliamentary attitudes towards religion and belief
6.3. Commemoration
of religious events
and religious heritage
by parliament
A number of parliaments commemorate certain days
with a religious association, such as National Bible Day or
International Holocaust Remembrance Day.113
The Parliament of Canada celebrates the diverse faces of
Canadian identity. In recent years, indigenous peoples’
ceremonies and cultural/spiritual practices have started
appearing more prominently in parliament. Smudging
ceremonies (during which plants, usually sage, are burned
to cleanse and purify) have been conducted before some
events in the parliamentary precinct. Indigenous languages
are also increasingly being used in parliament, most notably
during committee hearings, allowing indigenous witnesses
and parliamentarians to interact in their mother tongue. In
addition, significant religious communities are singled out in
different months. For instance, April is Sikh Heritage Month,
May is Canadian Jewish Heritage Month, in September there
is a Mennonite Heritage Week and October is Canadian Islamic
History Month. There is also a National Day of Remembrance
of the Quebec City Mosque Attack and Action Against
Islamophobia on 29 January.
113 International Holocaust Remembrance Day commemorates all victims of the holocaust, including not only Jewish people but also other minorities.
114 Interview conducted in 2022.
115 US DoS, 2022f.
Parliaments have other ways of honouring different religions
or beliefs. The Israeli Knesset adapts its daily work to cater
for events within the religious calendar. Avi Dichter, Israeli
Member of the Knesset and current Minister of Agriculture and
Rural Development, explains:
“When we have voting during Ramadan, they give you
a gap of a few hours to make sure that the Muslim
members of the Knesset will be able to break the fast.
Whenever there’s a special holiday – Eid Al Adha, Eid
Al Fitr – you honour them and you don’t bring bills to
vote unless there is a total agreement and there’s no
problem about it. […] We do it with Jewish members
and we do it with Muslim members.
”114
During Ramadan in 2023, Speaker Amir Ohana hosted
representatives from Albania, Bahrain, Kosovo, Kazakhstan,
Morocco, Nigeria, Tanzania, Türkiye and the United Arab
Emirates for an iftar dinner in the Knesset.
In the Parliament of Egypt, working hours are generally shorter
during the month of Ramadan so that Muslim members are
able to break their fast with the iftar meal. This is not a rule
but a general courtesy that is observed when possible. In
Egypt, it is estimated that 90% of the population is Muslim
(majority Sunni) and 10% is Christian. The biggest Christian
group is the Coptic Orthodox Church, which constitutes about
90% of the Christian community.115
While the Coptic Orthodox
Christmas, which is celebrated on 7 January – following the
Julian calendar –, is a public holiday, parliament also observes
the tradition of not holding any sessions on 25 December, the
Christmas Day observed by Western churches (following the
Gregorian calendar).
Speaker Amir Ohana of the Israeli Knesset hosted representatives of countries with Muslim populations for an Iftar meal during
Ramadan, 2023. © Parliament of Israel
30
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
6.4. 
Oaths and affirmations
of office
Oaths of office are frequently part of the swearing-in of
parliamentarians, required before they are permitted to
assume parliamentary duties. A number of oaths are sworn in
the name of God. Parliaments have several ways of catering
for members who belong to different religions or who profess
no belief. Some parliaments offer the possibility of swearing
an affirmation instead of an oath, in which religious references
may be omitted. Others offer different religious texts which
can be sworn upon.
In the Swiss Parliament, new members must either swear
an oath or make a solemn promise before assuming office.
The text of the oath states: “I swear by the Almighty God to
uphold the Constitution and the law and to fulfil the duties of
my office to the best of my abilities.
” The text of the solemn
promise states: “I solemnly promise to uphold the Constitution
and the law and to fulfil the duties of my office to the best of
my abilities”
.116
The oath taken by incoming parliamentarians to the Parliament
of Ghana is detailed in the Standing Orders of the Parliament
of Ghana. It makes explicit reference to God, can be sworn
on the Bible or Qur’an or also as an affirmation without
116 Confédération suisse, 2021.
117 Parliament of Ghana, 2000; Ghana 1992 (rev. 1996) Constitution; statements about swearing on the Bible or Qur’an from an interview with a Ghanaian parliamentarian.
118 Sierra Leone 1991 (reinst. 1996, rev. 2013) Constitution, Third Schedule to the Constitution.
119 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 1979 (rev. 1989) Constitution; see: Islamic Parliament of Iran, 2014.
120 Parliament of Guyana, 2007.
121 House of Representatives of the Republic of Indonesia, 2015.
any religious reference.117
The same practice exists in the
Parliament of Sierra Leone.118
The procedures for swearing in at the Islamic Parliament
of Iran are reflected in its rules of procedure. Members of
the Assembly take an oath either at the first session of the
Assembly or at the first session they attend. They swear
“in the Name of God […] in the presence of the Glorious
Qur’an…”
. Religious minorities are permitted to take the same
oath but swearing on their holy book.119
After swearing the
oath, members will also sign a text of it.
The Manual of Rules of Procedure, Practices and Conventions
of the Parliament of Guyana states that incoming members of
parliament have the option of swearing an oath on the Qur’an,
the Bible or the Bhagavad Gita – the scriptures of the three
main religions of the State – or of making a solemn affirmation
instead of taking an oath.120
The wording of the oath itself is
not faith-based.
Incoming members of parliament in the Indonesian People’s
Representative Council must swear an oath in the name of
God, part of which states their commitment to uphold the
Pancasila, the five principles underlying the national ideology
of Indonesia.121
The first principle of the Pancasila is the
acknowledgement of monotheism.
31
7
. Regional and international parliamentary engagement
7. 
Regional and international
parliamentary engagement
122 EIAO, 1994.
123 Declaration in: Mygdalis, 2021, pp.199–202.
124 GCTP, 2022a.
There are a number of (inter-)parliamentary organizations which
work to promote common interests and support parliamentary
work. Examples are given below of inter-parliamentary
initiatives with a religious or belief dimension, including
the Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy, a network
of parliaments brought together by their shared Orthodox
Christian faith, and the International Parliament for Tolerance
and Peace, whose mandate is to engage parliamentarians
worldwide in working to promote peaceful coexistence and
respect, including through interfaith dialogue.
7.1. Inter-parliamentary
dialogue and networking
Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy
The Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy (IAO) is an
inter-parliamentary organization that works for cooperation
between parliaments of countries with a Christian Orthodox
community, guided by the common values of the shared
Orthodox faith and a desire to work for the institutional
promotion and protection of the Orthodox Christian tradition.
It was founded in 1994 at the initiative of the Greek (Hellenic)
Parliament in response to many changes occurring in Europe
resulting from the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1988–1991)
and the foundation of the European Union (1993). A need
was identified to found an organization which drew on the
contribution of Orthodoxy, as a common cultural expression
of a large number of people, to shape this new Europe and to
provide guidance in responding to spiritual, sociocultural and
political challenges.
Article 3 of the Founding Act from the first convention in
1994 names the following key objectives behind the founding of
the IAO:
• “[…] b. The enhancement of the role of Orthodoxy
within the framework of the European Union and
the consolidation of Orthodoxy as an important and
necessary political cultural and spiritual entity geared
towards the shaping of a new European reality.
• c. The contribution of the ecumenical and unifying
spirit of Orthodoxy both towards the transcendence
of extreme nationalistic, confessionary and religious
contradictions and the discovery of effective means for
the protection of ethnic or religious minorities. […]
• e. The support of the role of Orthodox culture as a
unifying force in Eastern Europe and as a bridge for
Europe in its relationships with the other cultures. […]
• h. The encouragement of contacts between
parliamentary, political, ecclesiastical, academic and
spiritual figures, or institutions geared towards the
development of an Orthodox cultural heritage and their
contribution to the contemporary global dialogue on
human rights and the peaceful coexistence of peoples.
• i. The fuller activation of Orthodoxy with the purpose
of its promoting solutions to the critical problems of
contemporary European society and the ecological
environment”
.122
The IAO was initially called the European Interparliamentary
Assembly on Orthodoxy (EIAO). It changed its name to the
Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy in 2001 when it
allowed groups of Orthodox extra-European parliamentarians
to attend its assemblies. It has since expanded its cooperation
agreements to include non-Orthodox parliamentary assemblies.
In 2018, the IAO, together with the Lebanese National
Assembly and in cooperation with the Arab Inter-Parliamentary.
It is Union, organized a conference in Beirut entitled Unity
in diversity and fundamental freedoms for Christians and
Muslims in the Middle East: A conference for parliamentary
dialogue. It was attended by approximately 75 parliamentarians
from 16 European, Arab and Asian countries. The Final
Declaration highlighted the importance of national legislation
being in line with universal human rights, encouraged
participants to promote the identity of national, cultural,
language, religious or ethnic groups as well as their right to live
in community with others, and supported interreligious and
inter-ethnic dialogue at the national and international level.123
International Parliament for Tolerance and Peace
The International Parliament for Tolerance and Peace (IPTP)
is the legislative arm of the Global Council for Tolerance and
Peace (GCTP).
The GCTP is a non-governmental organization founded in 2017
by Ahmed Al Jarwan, an Emirati politician who served on the
Federal National Council of the United Arab Emirates from
2011 to 2019 and as President of the Arab Parliament from
2012 to 2016. Reacting to the fractured state of the world and
the spread of extremism and violence, the GCTP was founded
to contribute to the promotion of a culture of tolerance and
peace. The organization is guided by the principles of the
United Nations and international law in its work. The GCTP has
its headquarters in Malta.124
32
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
The IPTP was launched in 2018 by the Parliament of Malta,
as the representative body and legislative arm of the GCTP
. It
was launched within the term of the current Speaker of the
House of Representatives of Malta, Angelo Farrugia. Speaker
Farrugia sees an important role for his parliament, which is
very engaged in the IPTP
, in using interfaith dialogue as a
peacebuilding tool:
“We embrace interfaith as a culture, and we embrace
intercultural dialogue. We feel that parliament has a
very important role. It is parliament itself, politicians
themselves – the representatives of the people – that
must act to raise strong awareness not only of the
rights and obligations relating to diversity and religious
tolerance, but also of the benefits, spearheading the
development of equality policies, in order to achieve
real change to fight discrimination.
”125
125 Interview conducted in 2022.
126 GCTP, 2022b.
The IPTP comprises members of national parliaments and aims
to meet quarterly to discuss and provide recommendations
on issues raised by the General Assembly and the Governing
Body of the GCTP
, as well as other topics of current
international importance which relate to tolerance and peace.
Parliamentarians from over 85 national parliaments belong to
the IPTP
.126
The IPTP is active in global discussions relating to interfaith
and intercultural dialogue. The GCTP co-organized two
sessions at the 2021 G20 Interfaith Forum on The role of
parliamentarians in interfaith dialogue. The inclusion of
sessions about parliamentarians and interfaith dialogue was
a new addition to the programme of the 2021 G20 Interfaith
Forum, as were ministerial sessions.
The IAO and the IPTP are both Permanent Observers of the IPU.
2018 meeting of the IAO in Beirut. © IAO
33
7
. Regional and international parliamentary engagement
7.2 Extra-parliamentary
dialogue and networking
Many parliaments and parliamentary organizations, including
the IPTP
, are engaged in relationship-building and dialogue
with extra-parliamentary actors. This often occurs when two
organizations share common goals. There are many instances
of parliamentary cooperation with religious actors in the spirit
of partnership for common ends.
Climate change
Climate change is an area where many interfaith actors and
organizations are active. Pope Francis made it the topic of his
second encyclical, Laudato si’, in 2015.127
In September 2021,
ahead of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference, he
also published a joint statement on the environment together
with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I and the Archbishop
of Canterbury, Justin Welby. The statement, entitled A joint
message for the protection of creation, calls for common
action to prevent climate change.128
On 4 October 2021, a
broader interfaith statement, Faith and science: An appeal for
COP26, was signed by the Pope and interfaith leaders in the
Vatican, before it was handed to the COP26 President, British
MP Alok Sharma.129
Only a few days later, the IPU also co-organized a pre-COP26
Parliamentary Meeting, together with the Italian Parliament
in Rome, Italy on 8 and 9 October 2021. Part of this meeting
included an audience with the Pope, where he presented the
Appeal for COP26 to the delegation. Rick Nimmo, Director of
the British Group to the IPU, said:
“We sat in a room and basically found that we had
the same common view […]. We saw it as adding
credibility and weight to our plea for action, the fact that
we could associate the Pope’s name with our work. To
that degree it was a huge multiplier for us. And I can
imagine he was seeing it in the same way […] he can
say he has also engaged [with] parliamentarians.
”
The Outcome Document of the Parliamentary Meeting held
during COP26 on 7 November 2021 referenced the meeting
with the Pope and the Appeal for COP26.130
Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
The field of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
of weapons is also one where both parliamentarians and
religious actors have been jointly engaged. In 2013, the global
interfaith non-governmental organization Religions for Peace
127 Francis, 2015.
128 Francis, Bartholomew I and Welby, 2021.
129 Francis and others, 2021; see also: Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, 2021.
130 IPU, 2021.
131 Ware, 2013.
132 Mayors for Peace, Religions for Peace, and PNND, 2015.
133 Ibid.
134 UNODA [no date].
135 SCRAP Weapons, 2022.
first published a Resource guide on nuclear disarmament for
religious leaders and communities.131
It contained a number
of references to parliamentary organizations, publications,
resolutions and quotes from individual parliamentarians.
A subsequent milestone came in 2015, when three
organizations – Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-proliferation
and Disarmament (PNND), Religions for Peace, and Mayors
for Peace – issued a joint statement in Hiroshima, Japan,
entitled A nuclear-weapon-free world: Our common good. This
marked the dropping of the first nuclear bombs on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, as well as the founding of the United Nations,
both of which had taken place 70 years earlier, in 1945. The
statement, with the stated goal “to support multilateral
negotiations for the elimination of nuclear weapons”
,132
said:
“Together – as mayors, parliamentarians and religious
leaders – we support the common good of nuclear
abolition. We reject nuclear weapons, which threaten
our humanity, contravene our moral principles, violate
international law and thwart the safety and well-being
of current and future generations.
We commit to principled action to advance shared
security and well-being based on deeply held and widely
shared moral principles, the rule of law and a profound
commitment to non-violent conflict resolution.
”133
The joint statement was subsequently presented to the United
Nations in Geneva on 25 September, the International Day for
the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons. The UN Office in
Geneva, the main location for diplomacy around disarmament
and non-proliferation, is also the home of the Conference on
Disarmament, a body for multilateral disarmament negotiations
which provides support for many disarmament agreements.134
The joint statement was also presented to the head of the
United Nations General Assembly, Mogens Lykketoft, in New
York on 29 September 2015. The statement was presented in
all three cities by representatives of the three organizations
behind it, including Saber Chowdhury, Co-President of the
PNND and then-President of the IPU.
In September 2022, the Strategic Concept for the Removal
of Arms and Proliferation (SCRAP Weapons) initiative, in
collaboration with the IPU, organized a hybrid seminar themed
around the activation of a fourth special session of the UN
General Assembly devoted to disarmament. One of the panels
focused on the role of interreligious dialogue for peace and
disarmament. One of its goals is to build a global coalition of
different religious actors working together for peace.135
SCRAP
Weapons is housed within the Centre for International Studies
and Diplomacy at SOAS University of London.
34
Parliamentary report on religion and belief – Part 1: Institutional engagement with religion and belief by parliaments
Other dialogues with a faith dimension
There are also examples where religious identity is one of
the factors within a broader dialogue process. Members of
the Federation Council of Russia are active in a number of
intercultural exchanges, including with the Russia–Islamic
World Strategic Vision Group, the Organization of Islamic
Cooperation (OIC) and the OIC Parliamentary Union.
The Russia–Islamic World Strategic Vision Group was
established in 2006 after Russia gained observer status at
the OIC. It was founded by Evgeny Primakov and Mintimer
Shaimiev. Primakov was an Arabist by training who held
various high-ranking positions within the Government of the
Russian Federation and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
Shaimiev was the first President of Tatarstan (1991–2010), a
republic within the Russian Federation where Muslim Tatars
are the biggest ethno-religious group. The chair of the Group
is the current President of the Republic of Tatarstan, Rustam
Minnikhanov, and the deputy chair of the Group is Deputy
Chair of the Federation Council Committee on Foreign Affairs
and former Prime Minister of Tatarstan, Farid Mukhametshin.
136 Russia–Islamic World Strategic Vision Group, 2019.
The mission of the Russia–Islamic World Strategic Vision Group is
to strengthen relations between the Russian Federation and the
nations of the Islamic world. At the inaugural meeting in 2006,
Primakov gave two reasons for the importance of this Group:
“The first reason, which unites us all, is understanding
of one of the main dangers in the modern world – its
division on the basis of religious and civilizational
principle […] Russia is one of the great powers that
influences the international life and in this capacity it
can and already is doing everything in order to prevent
the development of this tendency that threatens the
entire humanity.
The second reason for the creation of our Group aimed
at the dialogue between Russian and leading Islamic
representatives is the special ethnic-religious situation
in Russia. Millions of Muslims live there. And they are
not immigrants, like in many Western countries, but
an organic part of the indigenous population. Perhaps
there is no other State, the indigenous population of
which consists of a Christian majority and a Muslim
minority, that can be an example of peaceful living,
cultural interpenetration and the creation of a unique
community, like Russia. At the same time the position
of Russia as “the bridge” between Europe and Asia
is unique”
.136
The Group has members from 27 States in the Islamic world.
Meetings have been held in Moscow, Kazan, Istanbul, Jeddah
and Kuwait to discuss issues of common concern, including
countering terrorism, international relations, and Russia–Islamic
world relations. The Group cooperates with the OIC.
35
Outlook
This report is intended as a contribution to dialogue and learning between political, religious and
other spheres about issues of common concern. Part 1 of the report focuses on showcasing
examples of different ways that religion and belief are institutionally present in the life and work
of parliaments.
The present report hopes to encourage parliaments to engage in self-reflection, especially
to assess whether the mechanisms they have in place to engage with religion and belief are
inclusive, transparent and representative. Another related issue that merits more in-depth
exploration is the role of parliaments in promoting freedom of religion or belief and in countering
expressions of intolerance against people on the basis of their religion or belief.
The conversation will be continued at the Parliamentary Conference on Interfaith Dialogue
(Marrakesh, June 2023), which will bring together political and religious leaders along with
representatives of faith-based and civil society organizations and subject matter experts to
explore avenues for joint action to promote the rule of law, peace and inclusion in our societies.
Part 2 of the report will subsequently combine takeaways from the Parliamentary Conference on
Interfaith Dialogue with insights of individual parliamentarians into how their work engages with
religion and belief.
The IPU welcomes further input from national parliaments, associate members and permanent
observer organizations, and other interested individuals and organizations. We invite you to
contact us at: postbox@ipu.org.
36
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45
Methodology and data sources
The report makes use of a range of data sources:
Interviews: Over the course of 2022, a total of 48 interviews were conducted with 55 parliamentarians,
parliamentary staff, staff of the IPU Secretariat and subject matter experts. The interviews were
conducted in a hybrid manner. In-person interviews took place during the Annual Parliamentary
Hearing at the United Nations (New York, USA) in February 2022, the 144th IPU Assembly
(Bali, Indonesia) in March 2022, and the 145th IPU Assembly (Kigali, Rwanda) in October 2022.
Remote interviews took place online from February to May 2022. Three interview responses
were submitted in written form. Of the people interviewed, 22% were young persons.
Survey: A survey was issued to IPU Member Parliaments and Permanent Observer
organizations in March 2022. Responses were received from 53 parliaments and 1 Permanent
Observer organization.
Written input: To supplement the literature available about parliamentary engagement
with religion and belief, the report also drew on relevant parliamentary input, such as
that recorded in the detailed summary records from the General Debate of the 137th IPU
Assembly in St. Petersburg in 2017 on Promoting cultural pluralism and peace through interfaith
and inter-ethnic dialogue, and on the minutes of the international conference organized in
2018 by the IAO together with the Lebanese National Assembly and in cooperation with the
Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union on Unity in diversity and fundamental freedoms for Christians
and Muslims in the Middle East: A conference for parliamentary dialogue. Further input was
also provided by the contributions of participants at the workshop held during the 143rd IPU
Assembly in Madrid in 2021 on Good parliamentary practices to promote interfaith dialogue,
the Global Parliamentary Report 2022, and the IPU’s open-data platform, Parline.
Consultation and review
Consultations: Two internal consultations were held with members of the IPU Secretariat.
The first consultation was held in February 2022 to invite feedback on the research design.
The second consultation was held in June 2022 to solicit input about key research outcomes
and optimize the design of the final report. Two external consultations were held in May 2022
with researchers and practitioners active in the field of interfaith dialogue and issues impacting
religion and belief. These consultations served to provide input into the methodology and
process underlying the report.
Review process: The document underwent an internal review process as well as an external
peer review from subject matter experts.
46
Acknowledgements
This Parliamentary Report on Religion and Belief (Part 1) is a publication of the IPU.
The research was made possible by individuals, parliaments and organizations who contributed
their thoughts, experiences and insights. A consultation process with international faith-based,
governmental and non-governmental organizations throughout 2021 and 2022 supported
the IPU in learning about different ways in which religion and belief are reflected in national
parliaments. In this regard we would like to extend our gratitude to Religions for Peace, the
United Nations Alliance of Civilizations, the World Council of Churches, the Sovereign Order of
Malta and the Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs.
Project management was led by Anda Filip, IPU Director for Member Parliaments and External
Relations, in cooperation with Mokhtar Omar, Senior Advisor to the IPU Secretary General.
Dr. Sarah Markiewicz led the research for the report. She designed a survey for IPU member
parliaments and observer organizations and also conducted interviews with parliamentarians,
parliamentary staff, IPU staff and subject matter experts. She was supported in this work by
Hafssa Kouskous and Alfonso Carvajal Zuleta. Andy Richardson provided expertise on research,
good practice and methodology. Alexander Lowe and Hafssa Kouskous supported with the
design and implementation of the survey.
The report was written by Dr. Sarah Markiewicz, supported by Agnès Bouché.
We are indebted to Professor Andreas Feldtkeller, Professor of Religious Studies and
Intercultural Theology at the Humboldt University of Berlin [Germany], to Professor Alfonso
Santiago, Director of the School of Politics, Government and International Relations of the
Universidad Austral, [Argentina] and to Katherine Thane, Peacebuilding and Religious Freedom
Policy Coordinator at Tearfund [United Kingdom], for their generous advice and guidance
throughout the preparation of this report. The report also benefited from input received from
Sam Sweeney, Dominika Hadrysiewicz, Brigitte Brenner, Rima Al-Azzawe, Vartika Neeraj, Josh
Cass, Mona Hein, Dr. Johannes Eckstein, Jordan Kynes, Joshua Levkowitz, Nora Monzer and
Agnès Bouché.
The IPU is grateful to all the parliaments, individual parliamentarians, parliamentary staff and
subject matter experts who participated in the survey, interviews and other consultations.
47
COUNTRY INTERVIEWS SURVEY
Afghanistan 
Algeria 
Argentina  
Australia 
Austria  
Bahrain 
Bangladesh  
Belarus 
Belgium 
Benin 
Cambodia 
Cameroon 
Canada  
Cabo Verde 
Chad 
Chile 
Columbia 
Cyprus 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Egypt 
Estonia 
COUNTRY INTERVIEWS SURVEY
Ethiopia 
France 
Gambia (The) 
Georgia 
Germany 
Ghana  
Greece 
Guyana 
Hungary 
India 
Indonesia 
Ireland 
Israel 
Japan 
Jordan 
Kenya  
Kuwait 
Latvia 
Lebanon 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Malaysia  
Participation in the data
collection for this report
48
COUNTRY INTERVIEWS SURVEY
Malta 
Mexico 
Montenegro 
Morocco 
Mozambique 
Nepal 
New Zealand 
Nicaragua 
North Macedonia 
Pakistan 
Paraguay 
Poland 
Portugal 
Republic of Korea 
Republic of Moldova 
Romania  
Russian Federation  
Rwanda 
Saudi Arabia 
Seychelles 
Sierra Leone 
COUNTRY INTERVIEWS SURVEY
Slovenia 
Spain 
Sri Lanka 
Suriname 
Sweden 
Switzerland  
Thailand  
Timor-Leste 
Trinidad and Tobago 
Türkiye 
Ukraine 
United Arab 
Emirates
United Kingdom  
United Republic
of Tanzania

Viet Nam 
Zimbabwe 
Permanent Observer
Inter-Parliamentary
Assembly on orthodoxy

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